Radiometer for determining oil film thickness

Abstract

A radiometer is described which coherently detects the thickness of oil films on water by converting continuous-frequency microwave or millimeter-wave brightness temperature versus frequency measurements from the frequency/wavenumber domain to the oil-film-thickness domain (received power versus film thickness).

Description

GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

The Government has rights in this invention pursuant to Contract/Grant No: 449-4-201, the U.S. Coast Guard Research and Development Center

RELATED U.S. APPLICATIONS

This is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 08/041,728 filed on 1 Apr. 1993, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,381,442.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Sea surface oil spills do not spread uniformly, nor without limit. Thick regions having a thickness of a millimeter or more are formed, which contain the majority of the oil. Reliable detection of oil thickness is of major importance. A knowledge of the oil distribution, and the location of those regions containing the heaviest concentration of oil, would enable the most effective confinement, control and clean-up of the oil.

Multifrequency microwave radiometry has heretofore been employed as a technique for determining oil thicknesses greater than about 1 mm. ("The Determination of Oil Slick Thickness by Means of Multifrequency Passive Microwave Techniques", James P. Hollinger, NRL Memorandum Report 2953, June 1974.) This technique is based upon the fact that the apparent microwave brightness temperature is different in the region of the oil slick than in the adjacent unpolluted sea by an amount which depends upon the slick thickness. The oil slick acts as an electromagnetic matching layer between free space and the sea, modulating the brightness temperature of the sea. As the thickness of the oil slick is increased, the apparent microwave brightness temperature at first increases and then passes through alternating maxima and minima, due to the standing wave pattern set up in the film. The adjacent maxima and minima are separated by integral multiples of a quarter of the electromagnetic wavelength in the oil.

Heretofore, the use of microwave radiometry for oil slick thickness measurement has been hindered by several drawbacks in the technology. Chief among these difficulties are the inability to achieve thickness resolution below about 1 mm and the inability to unambiguously measure oil slicks containing a range of thicknesses.

A need exists, therefore, for an improved microwave radiometer capable of achieving better thickness resolution and having the ability to discriminate unambiguously different thicknesses of oil contained within a given radiometric antenna pattern.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In general, the invention is comprised of a radiometer which detects the electromagnetic energy radiated by a body of water having a film of oil on its surface. The radiometer detects the energy as a brightness temperature over a range of radiation frequencies and converts the detected frequency-domain spectrum to a spectrum of radiation power versus film thickness. This conversion is accomplished by Fourier transform signal processing and results in an unambiguous film-thickness distribution measurement over a large thickness range.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is an example of a brightness-temperature curve for a uniform oil film of 0.2-cm thickness.

FIG. 1B is an oil-film power spectrum obtained by Fourier transforming the curve in FIG. 1A from the frequency domain to the thickness domain, in accordance with the invention.

FIG. 2A is a computer generated brightness-temperature curve for an oil film containing equal-area patches having 0.1-, 0.2- and 0.4-cm thickness.

FIG. 2B is an oil-film power spectrum obtained by Fourier transforming the curve in FIG. 2A. The three peaks occur at the associated oil-film thicknesses.

FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram of a preferred embodiment of the invention.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The electromagnetic power emitted by a large body of water into the atmosphere above it can be estimated by basic principles of radiative transport theory. In the microwave and millimeter-wavelength spectral regions, the atmosphere is somewhat absorbing because of water vapor and a few other molecular species. Ignoring the atmospheric absorption and emission, we estimate that the power emitted from the water is the same as that from a blackbody having a temperature equal to the physical temperature of the water, T_W, and an emissivity ε_W given by Kirchoff's relation [2], ε_W ≈1-r, where r is the radiation reflectance between the water and air. The emitted power is thus described by the brightness temperature, T_B ≈εT_W. In the absence of the oil film, r≈(n_W -1)² /(n_W +1)², where n_W is the refractive index of the water. Because n_W is much greater than 1 in the microwave region, r is close to unity and T_B is much less than T_W.

In the presence of an oil film, the emissivity is modulated by the process of multiple-pass interference of radiation in the film. This is a well-known phenomenon in classical optics. Because the refractive index of oil, n_O, in the microwave and millimeter-wave regions is much less than that of water, the emissivity can be substantially increased in certain frequency ranges and decreased in others by a reduction and enhancement, respectively, in the overall reflectance between the water and the air. This is similar to the effect of an intermediate-refractive-index anti-reflection coating on optical components. For radiation propagating perpendicular to the film, the result is an overall reflectance of: ##EQU1## where r_a and r_w are the reflectances at the oil-air and oil-water interfaces, respectively, t_a and t_w are the transmittances at the oil-air and oil-water interfaces, respectively, k is the free-space wave vector of the radiation, h is the oil-film thickness, and the factor of π in the argument of the cosine accounts for the fact that there is nearly a 180° phase shift upon reflection at the oil-water interface (radiation incident from the oil side).

In the microwave region r_w is roughly 0.5 but r_a is much closer to zero since r_a =(n_O -1)² /(n_O +1)² and n_O is approximately 1.5. With this in mind, we can expand Equation 1 with respect to .sqroot.r_a to obtain: ##EQU2## where the identity cos (2n_o kh+π)=-cos (2n_o kh) has been used.

The brightness temperature is thus approximated by: ##EQU3##

The approximate expression for T_B given by Equation 4 can be written as:

T_B ≈T_W (a+b cos 2n_o kh). (5)

To the extent that the parameters a and b are independent of frequency, the film thickness can be determined uniquely by Fourier transformation of Equation 5 from the wavenumber/frequency domain to the thickness domain. This fact is the basis for the signal processing carried out on thick oil films in accordance with the present invention.

To illustrate this signal processing method, we carry out the Fourier cosine transform for a single film of thickness h under the assumption that the brightness curve is band-limited from 0 to ω_max where ω_max =k_max c and c is the speed of light in air. In this case, ##EQU4## where x is the thickness variable. Substituting in the cosine term of Equation 5 and evaluating the integral, we find the following expression for T_B (x): ##EQU5## The first term is a sinc function, defined by sinc(x)=sin(x)/x, that has a peak of unit magnitude at x=2n_o h. The second term will be negligible for x>0 provided that k_max (2n_o h+x) is greater than or equal to π.

A quantity of great practical importance is the thickness resolution δh. By definition, this is the minimum difference in thickness that two oil films can have and still be discriminated in accordance with the invention. Assuming that only the first term of Equation 7 is significant, we can define δh using Rayleigh's criterion. This criterion states that two films of thickness h₁ and h₂, respectively, will be just discriminated when the first zero of the sinc function for one film lies at the same x as the peak of the sinc function of the other film. Equivalently, δh is the separation in the thickness domain between the peak of the sinc function and its first zero. The first zero away from the peak is given by ω_max (2n_o h₁ -x)/c=±π. The separation between either of these zeros and the peak is δx=c/2f_max. This separation corresponds to a difference in oil thickness of: ##EQU6## For example, with n_O =1.5, we find δh=1.25 and 0.5 mm for f_max =40 and 100 GHz, respectively.

To illustrate the Fourier-transform spectroscopy, we first consider a uniform film having a thickness of 2 mm and the parameters r_a =0.03, r_w =0.5, t_a =1-r_a =0.97, t_w =1-r_w =0.5 and f_max =100 GHz. The curve of T_B versus f, as calculated from Equation 1, is shown in FIG. 1A under the assumption that T_W =280K. As expected, it is quasi-sinusoidal and upon Fourier transformation yields the power spectrum in FIG. 1B. The side-lobes of the sinc function are a distraction to the eye, but do not affect the correct location of the peak at h≈0.2 cm. In principle, these side-lobes could be greatly suppressed by apodizing the T_B curve before Fourier transformation. The penalty of apodization is that it increases δh, so that it is not an acceptable procedure when the thickness resolution must be minimized.

A second and more convincing illustration of the Fourier-transform method is to consider three separate films of thickness h₁, h₂ and h₃ distributed equally within the radiometer beam. Assuming the same reflection and transmission parameters as above and h₁ =1 mm, h₂ =2 mm, and h₃ =4 mm, we obtain the T_B curve in FIG. 2A. Because of the mixing between the quasi-sinusoidal curves of the three films, the brightness curve is convoluted. However, the Fourier cosine transform deconvolves the brightness curve and yields three clearly discernible peaks in FIG. 2B at the correct oil-film thicknesses. Of course, a difference in the distribution of the three films would be manifested in the thickness domain by a difference in the corresponding peak magnitudes of the power spectrum.

For the measurement of films significantly thinner than about 0.5 mm, existing tecchnology will make it difficult to apply the Fourier-transform method. However, Eq. (5) can be applied in a different way. The idea is to measure the absolute offset in brightness temperature of the thin oil film compared to bare water. This offset ΔT is denoted by T_B (h)-T_B (h=O). In principle, the minimum offset that can be measured is approximately ΔT. Making this exact and applying Eq. (5), one finds:

T_B (h)-T_B (h=0)=ΔT=T_W b(cos 2n_o kh-1)(9)

where b is defined by Eq. (5). Solving for the film thickness, one finds, ##EQU7## The minimum detectable thickness, h_min, will be obtained with the maximum k that the radiometer provides. Since k=2π/λ₀, the maximum k corresponds to the minimum λ₀. Therefore, one can write, ##EQU8##

As an example, one can use the same parameters applied in the previous section, λ₀ =3 mm (f_max =100 GHz), t_w =0.5, r_w =0.5, r_a =0.03, and n_o =1.4. From these values, one finds b=-2t_w (r_a r_w)^1/2 =-0.12 and h_min =0.04 mm or 40 microns. This is thin enough to classify as an oil sheen. Oil sheens are of great interest in the intermediate and latter stages of a large oil spill after significant spreading and weathering have occurred. Oil sheens are also of great interest in small spills or leaks that often occur in older ships anchored in harbors or at docks.

Because of limitations on observation time, it is impractical to obtain the continuous brightness temperature curve of an oil film across any significant fraction of the millimeter-wave region (defined as 30 to 300 GHz). Therefore, the system of the invention measures the radiation at discrete frequencies separated by some frequency interval Δω. By Nyquist's famous sampling theorem, the thickest oil film h_N that can be measured without ambiguity (i.e., without aliasing) is the one whose T_B curve displays one-half cycle over Δω. The so-called Nyquist thickness h_N thus satisfies cos2n_o Δωh_N /c=-1, which leads to: ##EQU9## As an example, with n_O =1.5 and Δf=1 GHz, we find h_N =5 cm. The maximum oil-film thickness anticipated in practice is about 1.5 cm, so that a 1 GHz interval will easily prevent ambiguity in the measurement.

To more completely understand the ambiguity problem faced by radiometers prior to the present invention, we assume that T_B is measured at only one frequency f_m. Since T_B is known for all possible thicknesses at f=0 by the phenomenology discussed above, the effective frequency interval in this case is f_m. This yields a Nyquist thickness of c/4n_o f_m. For example, a radiometer operating at 40 GHz provides an h_N of only 1.25 mm. Any film having thickness greater than or equal to h_N will be measured with great ambiguity.

Ideally, the brightness temperature curve should be sampled at roughly 1-GHz frequency intervals from zero up to a frequency as high as practical. From the example given above, an f_max of 100 GHz yields a thickness resolution of approximately 0.5 mm. In practice, it is very difficult to obtain complete radiometric data in the band covering 0 to 100 GHz because of atmospheric absorption, particularly the H₂ O line near 22 GHz and the O₂ line near 60 GHz. Other limiting factors are the complexity and expense of the instrumentation required to cover such a wide frequency range. To alleviate these difficulties, the preferred embodiment of the invention is operated in the two spectral subbands from 26 to 40 GHz and from 75 to 100 GHz. Combined with the knowledge of T_B by default at f=0, the information in the two spectral subbands can be used to determine the unknown brightness temperature in the frequency gaps between 0 and 26 GHz and between 40 and 75 GHz by interpolation. The methods of linear-prediction theory, such as least-square fitting to polynomials, are well suited for this interpolation because T_B will be sampled at many frequencies in each subband. This will make it possible to interpolate using a polynomial, or some other functional series containing many terms. As a general rule, the accuracy of the interpolation increases with the number of terms in the series.

Linear-prediction methods are well suited to digital computers. They generally involve heavy application of techniques in linear algebra, such as matrix manipulation and determinant calculation. These techniques are readily and quickly carried out on digital computers using any higher-level language that supports multi-dimensional arrays. It is advantageous for the present invention that such computers have recently advanced to the point that linear prediction methods can be carried out very quickly. For example, microcomputers based on the RISC architecture can now carry out linear algebraic calculations at the rate of approximately 10 million floating-point operations per second. This level of computation speed would allow the signal processing associated with the present invention to be carried out in real-time or, at worst, pseudo real-time.

Historically, radiometry in the millimeter-wave region has been conducted primarily by the coherent, or heterodyne detection technique in a relatively narrow spectral bandwidth equal to roughly 2% of the center frequency. The present invention also uses heterodyne detection, but over a very broad frequency range of 30 to 40% of the center frequency, The critical function in the heterodyne technique is the down-conversion of radiation of interest to a much lower frequency where signal processing can be readily performed. The down-conversion process occurs by mixing the incident radiation with the coherent radiation from a local oscillator (LO) to generate a signal at the difference frequency (DF). In the present invention, down-conversion is required for only one (the upper) of the two possible sidebands.

FIG. 3 is a schematic of a preferred embodiment of a Ultra-Wideband Radiometer (UWBR) of the invention, which operates over two wide spectral subbands of 26-40 GHz (Subband A) and 75-100 GHz (Subband B). The input beam from a body of water covered with oil is separated into the subbands by diplexer 12, which may comprise an inductive-mesh high-pass filter with a cut-on frequency at about 60 GHz.

The mesh filter is mounted at 45° with respect to the input beam. Focusing optics 14a and 14b, placed between the mesh and receiver feedhorns 16a, 16b, allow the antenna patterns of the two subband receivers to be made nearly equal. This is important because the validity of interpolating in the frequency gap between 40 and 75 GHz demands that the T_B curves for the two subbands correspond to the same area on the oil film being observed.

To operate over the wide spectral subbands of 26-40 GHz and 75-100 GHz, the UWBR uses waveguide single-balanced mixers 18a and 18b and fixed frequency local oscillators 20a and 20b operating just above the cutoff frequency of the waveguide, and a wide DF band containing several channels. In both receivers, the down-converted power in each DF band is frequency demultiplexed into the channels using demultiplexers 22a and 22b, amplified in low-noise channel amplifiers, 25a and 25b, square-law detected in detectors 24a, 24b, analog averaged in integrators 26a, 26b, digitized by A/D converters 28a, 28b, and then processed by a common computer 30. The frequency interval between channels is chosen to be great enough to allow for high sensitivity within each channel, but fine enough to provide a Nyquist thickness well above the maximum anticipated thickness in the oil film. In the preferred embodiment of FIG. 3, the frequency intervals are 1 and 2 GHz in the 26-40 and 75-100 GHz receivers, respectively. As shown in the above example, a frequency interval of 1 GHz provides a Nyquist thickness of 5 cm. In the typical situation, where the oil films have already spread well below 1 cm thickness, the frequency intervals should be increased accordingly. For example, the 26-40 GHz subband could be sampled in five channels separated by 3-GHz intervals with an h_N of approximately 1.7 cm and still allow for a five-term polynomial or functional series in the interpolation procedure. The advantages of increasing the frequency interval are that the frequency demultiplexer then operates more simply and effectively and the observation time decreases, as explained below.

The computer 30 processes the digital data from the A-to-D multiplexers 28a and 28b by calculating the Fourier transform. There are a number of standard computer software packages available that can calculate the Fourier transform or, alternatively, custom routines can be written. In either case, the transformation is similar algorithmically to the Fast Fourier Transform first described by Cooley and Tukey in their famous paper in 1965, "An Algorithm for the Machine Calculation of Complex Fourier Series". The determination of oil film thickness will be carried out the computer in real time or pseudo real-time as the UWBR collects data. The resulting thickness distribution will be displayed and simultaneously recorded for further analysis and archival purposes.

The sensitivity of the UWBR, like all total-power radiometers, is characterized in the microwave and millimeter-wave regions by the minimum detectable temperature ΔT. By definition, this is the brightness temperature present at the input to the radiometer that would yield a signal-to-noise ratio of unity after square-law detection and analog averaging. It is given by: ##EQU10## T_R is the receiver noise temperature, B_C is the channel DF bandwidth, τ is the analog integration time, and C is a constant of order unity, henceforth assumed to equal 1∅ T_R is a function of the noise introduced by the DF preamplifier, losses in the coupling of radiation from the atmosphere into the mixer, losses in the mixer frequency down-conversion, and losses in the frequency demultiplexer. In the two proposed subbands of the UWBR, the radiation coupling and demultiplexer losses should be small compared to the mixer single-sideband conversion loss L. In this case, one can write:

T_R ≈T_MIX +LT_DF, (14)

where T_MIX is the mixer noise temperature and T_DF is the preamplifier noise temperature.

To illustrate these characteristics, we evaluate the expected receiver performance in the two subbands using components that are available commercially. In the 26-40 GHz subband, single-balanced GaAs-based Schottky-diode mixers manufactured by Watkins-Johnson operate with T_MIX ≈800K and L≈6 dB averaged across the band. Room-temperature GaAs-FET-based DF channel amplifiers made by MITEQ display T_IF ≈75K (1.0-dB noise figure) when operating with a channel bandwidth of 1 GHz at center frequencies up to about 12 GHz. Putting this altogether, we find T_R ≈1100K. In the 75-100 GHz subband, another Watkins-Johnson single-balanced mixer typically displays T_MIX ≈1500K and L≈8 dB averaged across the band and the DF channel amplifiers will be the same, so that T_R ≈2000K.

Now suppose that we wish to measure T_B curves in the two subbands with 1-GHz wide DF channels and a signal-to-noise ratio of 100. From FIGS. 1a and 2a, we observe that the average brightness temperature (i.e., the average signal) in the subbands is roughly 130K, so that a ΔT of 1.3K is required from the two receivers. In the 26-40 and 75-100 GHz receivers, this means that the integration time must be 0.7 and 2.4 ms, respectively.

Although the Fourier transform process is preferred, once the brightness temperature spectrum is obtained for a given oil film, there are other ways to transform from the frequency domain to the oil thickness domain. The simplest way is by use of a fitting algorithm. The first step in this algorithm is to fit the brightness-temperature versus frequency curve with a polynomial experimentally calibrated curve. The order of the polynomial can be as high as the number of data points in the curve. The second step is to fit the data-matched polynomial with an expression from electromagnetic theory. The theoretical expression is based on standing-wave interference in the oil film, and is readily worked out with a plane-wave formalism. The thickness of the film is a parameter that is varied incrementally. The predicted oil-film thickness is that value of the thickness parameter that minimizes the difference between the experiment and the theory in a least-mean-squares sense.

Equivalents

Those skilled in the art will know, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein.

These and all other equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the following claims.

Claims

1. A radiometer for determining the thickness distribution of an oil film on a body of water comprising:

a) a receiver for detecting the electromagnetic power radiated by the body of water and oil film by sampling the radiated power over a continuous range of frequencies, and for generating therefrom a first electrical signal proportional to a brightness temperature of the water and film versus radiation frequency; and

b) a signal processing means for deriving the thickness distribution of the oil film from the first electrical signal.

2. The radiometer of claim 1 wherein the radiated power is coherently detected over two subbands, and wherein each subband is within said continuous range of frequencies and comprises an array of channels of different frequencies and wherein the two subbands comprise a first subband extending from about 26 to 40 GHz and a second subband extending from about 75 to 100 GHz.

3. The radiometer of claim 2 in which the subband channels are defined by frequency demultiplexers, and each channel extends across at least one gigahertz of frequency.

4. The radiometer of claim 3 including square-law detectors and integrators coupled to each channel for generating analog signals proportional to the sensed brightness temperature in each channel.

5. The radiometer of claim 4 including an analog to digital converter for converting the analog signals in each channel to digital format, and a digital multiplexer for combining the digital signals from each channel.

6. The radiometer of claim 1 wherein the signal processing means comprises a computer.

7. The radiometer of claim 1 wherein the first signal is measured by mixing the radiated power with a local oscillator signal to produce a signal proportional to the difference between the frequency of the radiated power and the local oscillator signal.

8. The radiometer of claim 7 wherein the first signal is divided into a first continuous subband between about 26-40 GHz and a second continuous subband of about 75-100 GHz, and wherein said first and second continuous subbands are within said continuous range of frequencies.

9. The radiometer of claim 1 wherein the signal processing means derives the thickness distribution of the oil film by transforming the first signal into a second electrical signal, which second electrical signal is proportional to radiative power versus film thickness.

10. The radiometer of claim 9 wherein the signal processing means determines the thickness of the oil film by selecting a peak on the radiative power versus film thickness spectrum and determining the oil film thickness corresponding to that peak.

11. The radiometer of claim 1 wherein the signal processing means derives the thickness distribution of the oil film by a curve fitting technique which compares the first signal to an incremental set of predetermined polynomial experimentally calibrated curves.

12. The radiometer of claim 11 wherein the signal processing means further derives the oil film thickness from the thickness parameter which minimizes the difference between the experimental curve and the first signal by a least-mean-squares technique.

13. A method for determining the thickness distribution of oil film on a body of water comprising the steps of:

a) detecting the electromagnetic power radiated by the body of water and oil film over a continuous range of frequencies, and generating a first electrical signal therefrom which is proportional to a brightness temperature of the water and film versus radiation frequency; and

b) processing the first electrical signal to obtain a thickness distribution of the oil film.

14. The method of claim 13 wherein the radiated power is coherently detected in two subband, said two subbands being within said continuous range of frequencies.

15. The method of claim 14 wherein the two subbands comprise a first subband extending from about 26 to 40 GHz and a second subband extending from 75 to 100 GHz.

16. The method of claim 15 including dividing the subbands into channels, each channel extending across at least one gigahertz of frequency.

17. The method of claim 16 including generating analog signals proportional to the sensed brightness temperature of each channel.

18. The method of claim 17 including converting the analog signals in each subband to digital format and combining the digital signals from each subband.

19. The method of claim 13 wherein the first electrical signal is measured by mixing the radiated power with a local oscillator signal to produce a difference proportional to the difference between the frequency of the radiated power and the local oscillator signal.

20. The method of claim 19 wherein the first signal is divided into a first continuous range of about 26-40 GHz and a second continuous range of about 75-100 GHz, and wherein said first and second continuous ranges are within said continuous range of frequencies.

21. The method of claim 13 wherein the step of processing comprises transforming the first electrical signal into a second electrical signal, which second electrical signal is proportional to radiative power versus film thickness.

22. The method of claim 21 further comprising the step of determining the thickness of the oil film by selecting a peak on the radiative power versus film thickness spectrum and determining the oil film thickness corresponding to that peak.

23. The method of claim 13 wherein the step of processing comprises comparing the first signal to an incremental set of predetermined polynomial experimentally calibrated curves using a curve fitting technique.

24. The method of claim 23 further comprising the step of deriving the oil film thickness from the thickness parameter which minimizes the difference between the experimental curve and the first signal by a least-mean-squares technique.

25. A method of determining the thickness of an oil film on a body of water comprising the steps of:

a) forming a power spectrum over a predetermined continuous frequency range of the radiation from the oil film and water;

b) determining brightness temperature as a function of radiation frequency over said range;

c) transforming the radiation frequency function to a radiative power versus oil thickness function; and

d) selecting radiative power peaks from the radiative power versus oil thickness function and determining the oil film thickness corresponding to the peak radiative power.

26. Apparatus for measuring the thickness of an oil film on a body of water comprising:

a) a receiver for producing a radiation power versus frequency spectrum of received radiation from said body of water over a predetermined continuous frequency range; and

b) a signal processor for converting said spectrum to a brightness temperature versus frequency spectrum and for converting the temperature versus frequency spectrum to an oil thickness versus radiative power spectrum, said signal processor selecting radiative power peaks from the oil thickness versus radiative power spectrum and determining oil film thickness corresponding to the peak radiative power.