Embodiments are directed to capacitance compensation via a compensation device coupled to a gain device to compensate for a capacitance change occurring due to an input signal change, along with a controller coupled to the compensation device to receive the input signal and to control an amount of compensation based on the input signal. In some embodiments, banks may be formed of multiple compensation devices, where each of the banks has a different size and is coupled to receive a different set of bias voltages.
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1. An apparatus comprising:
a gain device to receive an input signal and to output an amplified signal; and
a compensation device coupled to the gain device to compensate for a change in a capacitance of the gain device occurring due to a change in the input signal; and
a controller coupled to the compensation device to receive the input signal and to control an amount of capacitance compensation provided by the compensation device based on the input signal.
11. A power amplifier comprising:
a gain stage having first and second complementary amplifiers, the gain stage to receive a differential input signal and to output a differential amplified signal;
a transformer having a first side and a second side, the second side to provide the differential input signal to the gain stage; and
first and second compensation devices coupled to the first side, wherein each of the first and second compensation devices is to compensate for a change in capacitance of at least a portion of the first and second complementary amplifiers responsive to a signal swing of the differential input signal.
3. The apparatus of
4. The apparatus of
5. The apparatus of
6. The apparatus of
7. The apparatus of
8. The apparatus of
9. The apparatus of
10. The apparatus of
a first capacitor coupled between differential input lines coupled to inputs of the gain device and the second gain device; and
a series capacitor coupled to the inputs to each of the gain device and the second gain device, wherein the compensation device is of a non-linear capacitance compensation circuit including a plurality of compensation devices each coupled between a plurality of bias voltages and one of the inputs.
12. The power amplifier of
13. The power amplifier of
14. The power amplifier of
15. The power amplifier of
16. The power amplifier of
17. The power amplifier of
18. The power amplifier of
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This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/889,890, filed on Sep. 24, 2010, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/080,066, filed Mar. 31, 2008, the content of which is hereby incorporated by reference.
In various circuitry, amplifiers are commonly used to boost an amplitude of an incoming signal to a desired level. For example, various amplifiers may be present in a given system to boost signal strength of incoming signals to provide them at a desired level for further processing.
In wireless systems such as cellular handsets, mobile internet devices, wireless personal digital systems (PDAs) and so forth, typically a power amplifier (PA) is present to receive a radio frequency (RF) signal modulated as desired for a given communication protocol and amplify this signal for transmission via an antenna of the device. Typically, a power amplifier can amplify both current and voltage of an incoming signal to provide the signal at a desired level.
Different requirements may exist in different communication protocols. Many communication systems have various requirements for a handset to achieve with relation to power, efficiency, and linearity over varying signal levels. For example, a variety of communication systems, including enhanced data rates for GSM evolution (EDGE), long term evolution (LTE/4G), WiFi in accordance with an IEEE 802.11 standard, worldwide interoperability for microwave access (WiMax), code division multiple access (CDMA), and wideband-code division multiple access (W-CDMA) all have modulation schemes that require a linear signal path.
In an amplifier stage of such a PA, if a phase shift through the stage is a function of the amplitude of the input signal, then that amplifier has phase distortion (a.k.a. amplitude modulation-to-phase modulation (AM-to-PM) distortion). AM-to-PM distortion is a non-linear process which degrades the amplifier's overall linearity. AM-to-PM distortion can exist with or without amplitude (a.k.a. AM-to-AM) distortion. Together the two non-linear processes characterize the non-linear behavior that is relevant in ideally linear communications circuits. These non-linear processes cause spectral splatter or leakage of signal energy from a desired channel to nearby channels. In many systems, this spectral splatter is measured by the adjacent channel power ratio (ACPR) or the adjacent channel leakage ratio (ACLR).
Current PAs are typically formed using a gallium arsenide (GaAs) process with bipolar devices that do not suffer significant AM-to-PM distortion. However, in the case of highly efficient complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) power amplifiers, AM-to-PM distortion can cause a significant linearity problem. AM-to-AM linearization techniques exist for CMOS devices, but such techniques either do not address AM-to-PM distortion, or they are rendered less effective because of AM-to-PM distortion. As a result, an amplifier such as a power amplifier that is formed using CMOS devices can have linearity issues. Alternatively, the CMOS power amplifier can be made to operate in a different mode (a.k.a. Class A) that improves the overall linearity but reduces the efficiency.
In one aspect, the present invention provides a technique to compensate for capacitance changes occurring due to corresponding changes in an input signal to a gain device. According to one implementation, a circuit includes a gain device, such as a present in a gain stage of a power amplifier, to receive an input signal and to output an amplified signal. To provide capacitance compensation for changes in the input signal, a compensation device is coupled to the gain device. More specifically, this compensation device, which may be a complementary device to the gain device, acts to compensate for a change in a capacitance of the gain device occurring due to the input signal change. The compensation device may be controlled by a bias generator that provides a bias voltage to enable a capacitance of the compensation device to be substantially equal and opposite to the capacitance change in the corresponding gain device substantially around a threshold voltage of the gain device.
Another aspect of the present invention is directed to a power amplifier that includes a gain stage and multiple compensation stages. The gain stage may include a pair of complementary amplifiers to receive a differential input signal and to output a differential amplified signal. In turn, each compensation stage has first and second compensation devices each coupled to an amplifier of one of the complementary amplifiers. In this way, each compensation device can compensate for a change in capacitance of the corresponding amplifier when the differential input signal is in a predetermined transition region of an input range. Such a power amplifier may be implemented in a wireless system to amplify signals provided by a transceiver or other such circuitry to an appropriate level for transmission via an antenna or other radiation means.
Yet another aspect of the present invention is directed to a method for open loop or closed loop compensation for capacitance changes to a gain stage. In a closed-loop implementation, the method may include detecting input signal amplitude into the gain stage, determining a capacitance to be coupled to the gain stage responsive to the detected amplitude to compensate for a non-linear phase response of the gain stage to the input signal, and controlling a controllable element to couple the determined amount of capacitance to the gain stage.
Still further embodiments are directed to a capacitance compensation via a compensation device coupled to a gain device to compensate for a capacitance change occurring due to an input signal change, along with a controller coupled to the compensation device to receive the input signal and to control an amount of compensation based on the input signal. In some embodiments, banks may be formed of multiple compensation devices, where each of the banks has a different size and is coupled to receive a different set of bias voltages. In some embodiments, one or more compensation devices can be coupled to a given side of a transformer that provides an input to a gain stage, such that the compensation devices compensate for a change in capacitance of the gain stage responsive to a signal swing of the input signal.
Embodiments may be used to improve linearity of an amplifier, and more particularly to improve phase linearity of a PA such as a CMOS PA. However, the techniques described herein may be used to improve linearity of CMOS devices in circuits beyond PAs. As will be described further below, embodiments may improve linearity by compensating for capacitance changes that occur to a device as it is provided with varying input signal levels. More specifically, as transistors dynamically change their characteristics when conducting in different operating regions, different inherent or parasitic capacitances may exist. Embodiments may attempt to reduce or remove the effects of such capacitance changes.
In a CMOS gain stage such as used in a PA, MOS devices can be configured as a complementary common-source amplifier in which multiple metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs), namely a p-channel MOSFET (PMOS) and an n-channel MOSFET (NMOS), are driven at the gates by an incoming signal and have their drain terminals coupled together to provide an amplified version of the input signal. In this case, the gate-to-source capacitance (Cgs), gate-to-bulk (Cgb), gate-to-drain (Cgd) and drain to bulk (Cdb) of the NMOS and PMOS devices are the main sources of AM-to-PM distortion. This is caused by the significant change in Cgs+Cgb as the input signal amplitude (Vgs) changes and Cgd change due to Vgd changes. For a high efficiency PA, a gain stage is typically biased Class AB or B, where the MOS devices are nearly off. As the input signal RMS value increases to a larger level than the quiescent, the devices' average operating point is shifted to a more “on” condition. This shifting operating condition causes a change in the devices' channel charge, and hence a change in the average gate capacitance Cgg.
The Cgs capacitance change typically happens near the threshold voltage of the devices, where they begin to conduct significantly. For example, if a device is instantaneously off at a point in time and there is no current through the device, a channel has no significant charge, and thus the capacitance seen on the input to a very small signal is also very small. When an input voltage starts to swing upwards and starts to turn the device on, the device starts to conduct, and the channel begins to gain some charge in it, and the device essentially acts like parallel plates such that when there is no charge in a channel the capacitance is small, but as a charge begins to build in the channel the capacitance increases rapidly.
Referring now to
Consider a sinusoidal input signal, Vgs. Conceptually, as the instantaneous voltage changes, the input capacitance also changes. Thus, the input signal traces a path on a capacitance vs. voltage plot diagram such as that of
The functional relation of the phase shift to the change in Cgs can be determined using a small signal model of a gain stage. Referring now to
Note that in this small signal model, at frequencies near a center frequency, which may correspond to a center frequency at which the gain device operates, e.g., a center frequency of a RF frequency of a given communication system (e.g., a 1800 megahertz (MHz)), the small signal model of
Δ Phase Shift=∠VL/IS=−tan−1(ωΔCgsRS)≈−ωΔCgsRS
∴ΔΦ=−tan−1(ωΔCgsRS)≈−ωΔCgsRS.
Extracting the total input capacitance under large-signal conditions, the (uncompensated) capacitance decreases at medium input levels. In an example system, assume a ΔCgs≅−1.8 picoFarads (pF), with RS=100Ω and a 900 MHz center frequency, the phase shift is approximately 45°, which can cause significant phase distortion.
The various non-linear capacitances for a MOS device include the gate-to-source capacitance (Cgs), gate-to-drain capacitance (Cgd), gate-to-bulk capacitance (Cgb) and drain to bulk capacitance (Cdb). For a MOS device configured to perform amplification, the Cgd capacitance is Miller multiplied by the gain, which can itself be nonlinear. In typical PAs configured to be in Class-A/B operation, the MOS device is biased in moderate inversion and in this region the Cgs and Cgb capacitances exhibit a fairly rapid change in capacitance. Due to large signal operation of the PA, the MOS devices configured as gain stages approach the triode region. This causes a fairly steep increase in the gate-to-drain capacitance as signal level increases.
To reduce or prevent such phase distortion, an open-loop or closed-loop compensation approach can be provided, in various embodiments. More particularly, embodiments may use a complementary device as a capacitor that compensates for the change in Cgg of the gain device. For compensation to be effective, the compensation device area can be scaled with reference to the gain device area so that changes in capacitance in a rapid transition region are approximately equal. As used herein, the term “rapid transition region” refers to a portion of a signal range (either as a function of input signal, Vgs, or other voltage level) at which rate of the capacitance change is substantially higher than at other portions of the voltage level. The region where Cgs and Cgb change rapidly is related to the threshold voltage of the device and the channel charge. The region where Cgd changes rapidly is related to where the device enters triode region, and thus the rapid transition region may also be used to refer to the devices themselves.
A compensation bias source can be set so that the rapid transition regions (for gain device and compensation device) align with respect to input voltage. In some implementations where the rapid change in capacitance is due to the rapid change in Cgs and Cgb, the compensation device can be approximately half the area of the gain device, and the corresponding compensation bias can be approximately VTN+|VTP| for a pMOS compensating a nMOS gain device or VDD−VTN−|VTP| for an nMOS compensating a pMOS gain device, where VDD is supply voltage and VTN and VTP are threshold voltages for the NMOS and PMOS devices, respectively.
Referring now to
Still referring to
For example, such parallel gain stages may each be of a different size and each may be biased differently. In such an implementation, each gain device may have a capacitance compensation applied as described above. Each compensation device may similarly be biased with a different bias voltage. In this way, with the differently-valued bias sources both for gain devices and compensation devices, the transition region of the capacitance change can be effectively spread out. In yet other embodiments, the multiple parallel gain stages can be biased at the same point or at very different points (i.e., some on and some off). In each case, a compensation device can be separately applied to each parallel path and the compensation bias may be set for the corresponding gain device to which it is coupled.
Still further, a single gain stage may have multiple compensation devices connected in parallel thereto, with each such compensation device biased at slightly different points to thus spread out the non-linearity, and thus to spread out the transition region of the capacitance change.
The bias voltage for a compensation device may be set to track any changes in the gain device's bias, supply voltage, temperature, and process variations. The basic dependencies for the bias voltage for compensation can be understood by considering the physical processes that lead to the capacitance changes. For an NMOS device, as Vgs increases from 0, while Vds>0, a channel is formed under the gate. This formation leads to a rapid increase in Cgs with respect to Vgs as the channel charge increases. The device's VT determines the amount of charge in the channel for a given Vgs, which influences Cgs and Cgb. Thus, VT strongly influences the value of Vgs at which Cgs goes through a rapid transition.
Likewise, the VT of a PMOS gain device determines the value of Vgs at which the Cgs of the gain device makes its rapid transition. Since the Vgs of the PMOS gain device is referenced to the supply voltage (VDD), the bias voltage for compensation may also be a function of VDD. As described above, in some implementations, the bias voltage is approximately VDD−|VTP|−VTN. Note that by shifting the burden of this bias generation design from RF to DC, many advantages appear, such as more design flexibility and easier implementation.
Referring now to
In some embodiments, there may be a variable capacitance on an output node of the gain device, which may be coupled from the drain to the source of the gain device and is variable. In this alternate embodiment, a complementary depletion capacitance may be coupled to compensate the output of the gain device for the capacitance change. Specifically, as shown in
In yet other implementations, a complementary version including both NMOS and PMOS devices, such as of a complementary gain stage may be provided. Referring now to
To expand the concept of capacitance compensation set forth in
Referring now to
As shown in
Compensation stages 230 and 270 are provided to improve phase linearity by decreasing the rate of a capacitance change occurring around the threshold voltages of the devices that form the gain stages. As shown, compensation stage 230 is formed of a pair of NMOS transistors M3 and M4, both of which have source and drain terminals coupled to a bias voltage obtained from a bias generator 240. In turn, gate terminals of these devices are differentially driven by the input signals to the PMOS devices of gain stages 220 and 260, namely MOSFETS M2 and M6. Similarly, compensation stage 270 is formed of a pair of PMOS transistors M7 and M8, both of which have source and drain terminals coupled to a bias voltage obtained from a bias generator 280. In turn, gate terminals of these devices are differentially driven by the input signals to the NMOS devices of gain stages 220 and 260, namely MOSFETS M1 and M5.
Note that bias generators 240 and 280 may be set at approximately the same bias level. Further, in some implementations only a single bias source may be provided and coupled to all compensation devices, although for certain implementations, providing separate bias generators for the different compensation stages may ease layout and routing issues. Thus in circuit 200, the differential output signal, Out +/− obtained at the common drain terminals of the complementary devices of each gain stage is provided with greater linearity across its operating range.
For proper bias, the bulk of the compensating devices are DC isolated from other devices. In various CMOS processes a deep N-well may be provided for the NMOS compensation devices. As shown in
Thus, by providing one or more compensation devices for a gain stage, reduced capacitance changes may occur, improving phase linearity. Referring now to
In other implementations, rather than an open loop approach, a closed loop system can be provided to obtain feedback regarding a level of an incoming signal and adjust a controllable element to provide a desired amount of capacitance to the gain device. Referring now to
In operation, a closed loop system may provide capacitance compensation as follows. First, the input signal amplitude may be detected, and an amount of capacitance to be coupled to the gain stage may be determined responsive to this detected amplitude. Note that this capacitance thus may compensate for a non-linear phase response of the gain stage to the input signal. Then, based on the determined capacitance, the controllable element, which can be a variable capacitance, a varactor with analog control or so forth, can be controlled to couple the determined amount of capacitance to the gain stage.
As described above, compensation circuitry in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention can be implemented in a PA such as a CMOS PA. Such a device can be used in various wireless systems, including handsets, mobile devices, PDAs and so forth. Referring now to
In a receive path, antenna 460 couples through antenna switch 455 and possibly through the duplexer or SAW filters and then to transceiver 440, which may demodulate the incoming RF signals back to baseband for transmission to baseband processor 430 for further processing. While shown with this particular implementation in the embodiment of
Depending on the bias point, a differential gain structure can present an increasing gate capacitance vs. signal level due to the above described non-linear capacitance contributors. The nonlinear capacitance presented by the gain stage can be compensated by using MOS devices configured such that they exhibit the opposing C-V curve profile. As described above, an NMOS device can be configured to act as a capacitor. Such a compensation device has a C-V profile that is plotted in
For a differential implementation with nominal bias point set to be at strong inversion, the C-V curves for each of the single ended implementations is shown in
As seen in
Referring now to
As further seen in
The bias voltages VBN and VBP can be chosen such that the compensation devices are nominally biased in the strong inversion region. Then the C-V curves for the compensation devices exhibit a decreasing capacitance vs. signal swing to compensate for the increasing capacitance vs. signal swing resulting from the gain stage devices.
As described further below, by adjusting the bias voltage and/or MOS device area (e.g., by making it programmable), the C-V profile can be adjusted to better compensate the MOS capacitance nonlinearity of the gain stages. That is, typically the capacitance increase of the gain devices is much more rapid compared to the decreasing capacitance resulting from the compensation devices. This is typically due to Cgs+Cgb nonlinearity as well as the Miller multiplied Cgd capacitance which becomes strongly nonlinear as the devices start entering the triode region in large signal operation. One way to maintain good compensation is to adjust the compensation device area to cause the required decrease in capacitance vs. signal swing. However, this may have the side effect of causing the overall capacitance at the gate to increase.
Assuming a step-down transformer (i.e., N>1), performing capacitance compensation on the primary side can provide for a larger change in capacitance (ΔC) across the voltage swing for the same fixed capacitance area when compared to performing the capacitance compensation on the secondary side. The reason for this is that the primary side experiences ‘N’ times the voltage swing as the secondary side, and depending on Vbias this can result in a larger ΔC. N can be 2 to 4 in a typical semiconductor process. Thus if a larger change in capacitance per unit capacitance is desired, the nonlinear capacitance can be placed on the primary side. The opposite is true: if a smaller change in capacitance is desired the nonlinear capacitance can be placed on the secondary side.
In other embodiments, instead of using a step-down transformer, another network that performs voltage attenuation may be used, for example, using a capacitive attenuator as shown in
Referring now to
Referring now to
An equivalent model for such a circuit is shown in
A differential implementation of such a structure is shown in
Compared to
Note that the embodiment of
Referring now to
As further seen in
As discussed earlier, the purpose of adding the NLCC circuit is to reduce the nonlinearity of change in capacitance due to gain stage capacitance variations with signal swing. Thus the NLCC circuit can be biased such that it provides a net decrease in capacitance to combat an increase in capacitance from the gain stage. In this way, the C-V curve profile for the compensation devices can be adjusted through adjusting the bias voltage Vbias and/or adjusting the sizing of the compensation devices.
By providing these programmable options, the composite C-V profile can be adjusted as desired across process and temperature. Note that programmability can be performed in one of many ways, such as a one-time programmable option by blowing fuses, static or dynamic calibration routines, and feedback or feedforward techniques to adjust the phase nonlinearity of the PA. Such feedback/forward techniques may be based on the input signal, or from another location in signal path such as output of the gain stage with some attenuation.
One way to achieve the area programmability is to provide banks of compensation structures which can be enabled or disabled to provide area and capacitance adjustment. Referring now to
Referring back to
One reason why the capacitance shift may need to be minimized when a compensation capacitance structure is enabled vs. disabled is to minimize the shift in tuning at the interface. One way to accomplish such a minimization in capacitance shift is to set the capacitance structure deep into strong inversion when the structure is disabled and very close to strong inversion when the structure is enabled, as the MOS capacitance is not a strong function of voltage when biased in strong inversion. In such a case the C-V curve profile may be as shown in
Notice that the disabled structure does not exhibit a significant shift in small signal capacitance compared to an enabled structure. Also, the disabled structure for the most part stays fairly linear in the signal swing range of interest of the input signal Vin. It is only when the disabled structure is enabled does it cause the C-V curve profiles to exhibit nonlinearity.
An even more specific case as to how such switching can be accomplished in the case of NMOS compensation devices is shown in
Referring now to
The other thing to note is during a disabled state the nonlinear capacitance can be placed in an accumulation region instead of the strong inversion region or another known state. The change in capacitance from enabled to disabled state may be accomplished with a fine adjust block, as depicted in
Changing the bias voltage causes the C-V curve to spread apart and thus changing the nonlinearity correction. This change in capacitance curve can be used for nonlinear compensation when a circuit changes from enabled to disabled state. The small signal capacitance changes only slightly in changing from enabled to disabled or vice versa.
Note that the change in capacitance vs. voltage can be proportional to the capacitor sizes. In some implementations, the capacitance vs. voltage profiles for MOS devices are a strong function of the channel length of the device. An option to achieve desired C-V curve profile is to choose a longer channel length profile (e.g., >2 μm), which may provide deeper C-V curve transition in moderate inversion but also lower Q. Similarly, a shorter channel length (<0.5 μm) can be used for higher Q and lower loss capacitance compensation.
While the present invention has been described with respect to a limited number of embodiments, those skilled in the art will appreciate numerous modifications and variations therefrom. It is intended that the appended claims cover all such modifications and variations as fall within the true spirit and scope of this present invention.
Srinivasan, Vishnu, Bockelman, David E., Kimball, Eric, Samavedam, Anil
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