This disclosure describes methods of screening for compounds that disrupt the interaction between dnmt1 and the gamma-globin promoter or between lsd-1 and the gamma-globin promoter. This disclosure describes methods of screening for compounds that de-repress the gamma-globin gene.
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10. A method of treating a beta-globin disorder in an individual in need of such treatment, comprising the steps of:
identifying an individual having a beta-globin disorder; and
administering an effective amount of a compound that inhibits lsd-1 to an individual suffering from a beta-globin disorder, wherein the effective amount of the compound that inhibits lsd-1 is an amount that de-represses the human gamma-globin gene, thereby treating the beta-globin disorder.
7. A method of treating a beta-globin disorder in an individual in need of such treatment, comprising the steps of:
administering an effective amount of a compound that inhibits lsd-1 to an individual suffering from a beta-globin disorder, wherein the effective amount of the compound that inhibits lsd-1 is an amount that de-represses the human gamma-globin gene; and
detecting expression of the gamma-globin gene in the individual, thereby treating the beta-globin disorder.
1. A method of screening for compounds that stimulate expression of a gamma-globin gene, wherein said method comprises the steps of:
contacting a recombinant non-erythroid host cell with a test compound, wherein the recombinant non-erythroid host cell comprises an exogenous nucleic acid sequence encoding a dna methyltransferase I (dnmt1) polypeptide and a nucleic acid sequence encoding a detectable polypeptide operably linked to a human gamma-globin gene promoter; and
measuring the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the presence and absence of the test compound, wherein an increase in the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the presence of the test compound compared to the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the absence of the test compound identifies a selected test compound as a compound that stimulates expression of the gamma-globin gene.
2. A method of screening for compounds that stimulate expression of a gamma-globin gene, wherein said method comprises the steps of:
contacting a recombinant non-erythroid host cell with a test compound, wherein the recombinant non-erythroid host cell comprises an exogenous nucleic acid sequence encoding the lysine-specific histone demethylase (lsd)-1 polypeptide and a nucleic acid sequence encoding a detectable polypeptide operably linked to a human gamma-globin gene promoter; and
measuring the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the presence and absence of the test compound, wherein an increase in the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the presence of the test compound compared to the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the absence of the test compound identifies a selected test compound as a compound that stimulates expression of gamma-globin gene.
3. A method of screening for compounds that de-repress a human gamma-globin gene, wherein said method comprises the steps of:
contacting a recombinant non-erythroid host cell with a test compound, wherein the recombinant non-erythroid host cell comprises an exogenous nucleic acid sequence encoding a tr2 polypeptide, an exogenous nucleic acid sequence encoding a tr4 polypeptide, an exogenous nucleic acid sequence encoding a dnmt1 polypeptide or a lsd-1 polypeptide or both, and a nucleic acid sequence encoding a detectable polypeptide operably linked to a human gamma-globin gene promoter, and optionally, one or more nucleic acids encoding a nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase (NuRD) complex, a corest complex, an hdac3 polypeptide, and a transcriptional intermediary factor (TIF)-1 beta polypeptide; and
measuring an amount of the detectable polypeptide in the presence and absence of the test compound, wherein an increase in the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the presence of the test compound compared to the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the absence of the test compound identifies a selected test compound as a compound that de-represses the human gamma-globin gene.
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This application claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. Applications No. 61/588,245 filed on Jan. 19, 2012, and U.S. Application No. 61/490,175 filed on May 26, 2011, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.
This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. DK086956 and HL024415 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.
This disclosure generally relates to the globin genes, specifically the gamma-globin gene.
Regulatory pathways that control development through temporally specified gene activation and repression mechanisms have been recognized as “epigenetic” (i.e. heritable changes not involving alterations in the primary DNA code). The beta-globin locus is a paradigm for epigenetic regulation of lineage- and developmentally-specific gene expression. The human beta-globin locus is composed of epsilon- (embryonic), G-gamma- and A-gamma-(fetal) and delta- and beta- (adult) globin genes, which are spatially arranged from 5′ to 3′ and developmentally expressed in the same order. A number of polypeptides involved in the epigenetic regulation of the beta-globin locus and their uses are described herein.
In one aspect, a method of screening for compounds that stimulate expression of a gamma-globin gene in a definitive erythroid cell is provided. Such a method typically includes contacting a recombinant cell with a test compound, wherein the recombinant cell comprises a nucleic acid sequence encoding a DNA methyltransferase I (DNMT1) polypeptide and a nucleic acid sequence encoding a detectable polypeptide operably linked to a human gamma-globin gene promoter; and measuring the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the presence and absence of the test compound. Generally, an increase in the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the presence of the test compound compared to the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the absence of the test compound identifies a test compound as a compound that stimulates expression of a gamma-globin gene in a definitive erythroid cell.
In another aspect, a method of screening for compounds that stimulate expression of a gamma-globin gene in a definitive erythroid cell is provided. Such a method typically includes contacting a recombinant cell with a test compound, wherein the recombinant cell comprises a nucleic acid sequence encoding the lysine-specific histone demethylase (LSD)-1 polypeptide and a nucleic acid sequence encoding a detectable polypeptide operably linked to a human gamma-globin gene promoter; and measuring the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the presence and absence of the test compound. Generally, an increase in the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the presence of the test compound compared to the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the absence of the test compound identifies a test compound as a compound that stimulates expression of a gamma-globin gene in a definitive erythroid cell.
In still another aspect, a method of screening for compounds that de-repress the human gamma-globin gene in a definitive erythroid cell is provided. Typically, such a method includes contacting a recombinant cell with a test compound, wherein the recombinant cell comprises a nucleic acid sequence encoding a TR2 polypeptide, a nucleic acid sequence encoding a TR4 polypeptide, a nucleic acid sequence encoding a DNMT1 polypeptide or a LSD-1 polypeptide or both, and a nucleic acid sequence encoding a detectable polypeptide operably linked to a human beta-globin gene promoter, and optionally, one or more nucleic acids encoding a nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase (NuRD) complex, a CoREST complex, an HDAC3 polypeptide, and a transcriptional intermediary factor (TIF)-1beta polypeptide; and measuring the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the presence and absence of the test compound. Generally, an increase in the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the presence of the test compound compared to the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the absence of the test compound identifies a test compound as a compound that de-represses the human gamma-globin gene in a definitive erythroid cell.
Representative compounds include small molecules, polypeptides, synthetic compounds, naturally-occurring compounds, antibodies, antigen-binding fragment, and antigens. In some embodiments, at least one of the nucleic acid sequences from each method is heterologous to the recombinant cell. In some embodiments, the detectable polypeptide is luciferase, GUS, beta-gal, or CAT.
In another aspect, a method of treating a beta-globin disorder in an individual in need of such treatment is provided. Such methods typically include administering an effective amount of a compound that inhibits LSD-1 to an individual suffering from a beta-globin disorder. Generally, the effective amount of the compound that inhibits LSD-1 is an amount that de-represses the human gamma-globin gene, thereby treating the beta-globin disorder. Representative compounds that inhibit LSD-1 include tranylcypromine, derivatives of tranylcypromine, analogues of tranylcypromine, polyamine analogues, and a 2-PCPA derivative. In some embodiments, the beta-globin disorder is selected from the group consisting of sickle cell disease and beta-thalassemia.
In another aspect, a method of treating a beta-globin disorder in an individual in need of such treatment is provided. Such methods typically include administering an effective amount of a compound that inhibits DNMT1 to an individual suffering from a beta-globin disorder. Generally, the effective amount of the compound that inhibits DNMT1 is an amount that de-represses the human gamma-globin gene, thereby treating the beta-globin disorder. Representative compounds that inhibit DNMT1 include doxorubicin, SGI-110, SGI-1036, disulfuram, azacytidine, and decitabine. In some embodiments, the beta-globin disorder is selected from the group consisting of sickle cell disease and beta-thalassemia.
Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which the methods and compositions of matter belong. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the methods and compositions of matter, suitable methods and materials are described below. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety.
Part A
Part B
Like reference symbols in the various drawings indicate like elements.
Nuclear receptors, TR2 and TR4, have been shown to bind to direct repeat elements in vitro in the mouse and human embryonic and fetal beta-type globin gene promoters, and to play critical roles in the silencing of these genes. This disclosure describes additional polypeptides or complexes (e.g., DNMT1, NuRD and LSD1/CoREST repressor complexes, and HDAC3 and TIF1beta polypeptides) that co-repress the embryonic beta-type globin promoters. Interestingly, in undifferentiated murine adult erythroid cells, these co-repressors associate with both the embryonic and adult beta-type globin promoters, but, upon terminal differentiation, they specifically dissociate only from the adult beta-globin promoter, concomitant with its activation, but remain bound to the silenced embryonic globin gene promoters.
Sickle cell disease is caused by a missense mutation in the adult beta-globin gene and affects millions of people worldwide. Hemoglobin that incorporates the mutant beta-globin polypeptide polymerizes, when deoxygenated, and causes erythrocytes to acquire a stiff, sickle shape. Sickle erythrocytes are subject to premature destruction, and prone to occlude blood flow, causing vascular damage in multiple organ systems. Therapeutic agents that increase gamma-globin production are widely expected to benefit sickle cells disease patients since biochemical evidence demonstrates that gamma-globin inhibits polymerization of deoxygenized sickle hemoglobin in vitro.
Screening for Compounds that Stimulate (or De-repress) the Globin Genes
Based on the experimental results described herein, methods of screening for compounds that stimulate (or de-repress) the gamma-globin gene in adult cells are provided. For example, methods are described in which compounds are screened for those that disrupt the interaction between DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1) and the gamma-globin promoter in a definitive erythroid cell, as are methods in which compounds are screened for those that disrupt the interaction between lysine-specific histone demethylase (LSD)-1 and the gamma-globin promoter in a definitive erythroid cell. Methods also are described in which compounds are screened to identify those that de-repress the human gamma-globin gene in a definitive erythroid cell (e.g., in the presence of TR2/TR4 polypeptides and/or DNMT1 polypeptide and/or a LSD-1 polypeptide).
The screening methods disclosed herein typically include contacting a recombinant cell with a test compound. For use in the screening methods herein, a recombinant cell includes nucleic acids encoding the polypeptides necessary to evaluate the interaction between the gamma-globin promoter and one or more of the co-repressors identified herein (e.g., DNMT1 or LSD-1, and, optionally, a nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase (NuRD) complex, a CoREST complex, an HDAC3 polypeptide, and a transcriptional intermediary factor (TIF)-1beta polypeptide). In addition to nucleic acids encoding one or more of the co-repressors identified herein, a nucleic acid sequence encoding a detectable polypeptide operably linked to a gamma-globin gene promoter (e.g., a human gamma-globin gene promoter) is required. It would be understood by those skilled in the art that the nucleic acids encoding the particular polypeptides can be endogenous to the cell or exogenous (e.g., heterologous) to the cell, but at least one nucleic acid is required to be exogenous for the cell to be recombinant.
The screening methods disclosed herein include measuring the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the presence and absence of the test compound. An increase in the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the presence of the test compound compared to the amount of the detectable polypeptide in the absence of the test compound identifies a test compound as a compound that disrupts the interaction between the one or more co-repressor polypeptides and the gamma-globin promoter in a definitive erythroid cell and, thereby, de-represses the gamma-globin gene.
Many of the methods described herein are highly amenable to automation and high throughput. See, for example, WO 84/03564 for a description of high throughput screening of compounds, and Farrelly et al. (2001, Analytical Biochemistry, 293:269-276) for a description of high throughput methods to screen for compounds that affect protein binding and transcriptional activation via protein binding.
Polypeptides, Nucleic Acids Encoding the Polypeptides, and Recombinant Cells
The novel interactions disclosed herein that ultimately result in repression of the human gamma-globin gene occur between polypeptides that are known in the art and have been described in the literature.
For example, TR2 polypeptides and TR4 polypeptides are nuclear receptors (in standard nomenclature, NR2C1 and NR2C2, respectively) that have been shown to be associated with the DRED repressor complex. The DRED repressor complex has been shown to bind to direct repeat (DR) elements found in the promoters of the epsilon- and gamma-globin genes. See, for example, US 2008/0008651 and Tanabe et al. (2007, EMBO J., 26:2295-306). The amino acid sequence of a human TR2 polypeptide can be found, for example, at GenBank Accession No. NP 003288, and the amino acid sequence of a human TR4 polypeptide can be found, for example, at GenBank Accession No. NP 003289.
The DNTM 1 polypeptide is often referred to as a maintenance methyltransferase, rather than a de novo enzyme, but it has been shown that the specific activity of DNTM1 on unmethylated DNA is greater than the de novo DNA methyltransferases, DNMT3A and DNMT3B. The present disclosure is the first to demonstrate a physical link between a nuclear receptor and DNMT1, indicating that DNMT1 may play a role in developmental gene silencing triggered by nuclear receptors. The amino acid sequence of a human DNTM1 polypeptide can be found, for example, at GenBank Accession No. P26358.
The LSD-1 polypeptide (see, for example, Shi et al., 2004, Cell, 119:941-53) often associates with the CoREST complex, which contains both HDAC1/2 and H3K4 demethylase. Recently, it was shown that LSD-1 also can act as a transcriptional co-activator for the androgen receptor by stimulating demethylation of histone H3K9, a repressive histone mark, and it was subsequently shown that LSD-1 also is required for ER-regulated transcriptional activation. The amino acid sequence of LSD-1 can be found, for example, at GenBank Accession No. NP—001009999.1 (LSD-1A) and NP—694587.3 (LSD-1B).
In addition to the primary components of the silencing complex, which, in addition to the TR2/TR4 heterodimer, includes DNTM-1 and/or LSD-1, several other polypeptides were identified that may be involved, with one or more of the primary components, in the repression of the adult human gamma-globin gene. For example, the NuRD complex, the CoREST complex, HDAC3 and TIF1beta also may be involved in repression of the adult human gamma-globin promoter.
The NuRD complex is the only known multi-protein complex containing both histone deacetylase (HDAC1/2) and chromatin remodeling ATPase (Mi2) polypeptides, as well as a number of others. NuRD has been shown to interact with a number of transcription factors, and analyses of mice bearing targeted mutations of NuRD subunits have revealed their important roles in various aspects of development, including a role for Mi2beta in self-renewal and multilineage differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells. MTA1, the signature subunit of NuRD, was previously shown to directly interact with the estrogen receptor (ER) and to act as a co-repressor of ER-mediated transcriptional repression. For a review of the NuRD complex, see, for example, Ramirez et al., 2009, Epigenetics, 4:532-6 and Yang et al., 2008, Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell. Biol., 9:206-18. Representative amino acid sequences of polypeptides involved in the NuRD repressor complex include, for example, GenBank Accession Nos. NP—004955.2 (HDAC1), NP—001518.3 (HDAC2), NP-001264 (Mi2beta), and NP—004680 (MTA1).
As indicated herein, the CoREST complex typically includes a CoREST protein, HDAC1/2, H3K4 demethylase and LSD-1. The CoREST complex has been reported to be a histone deacetylase complex. A review of the CoREST complex can be found, for example, in Lakowski et al., 2006, J. Mol. Neurosci., 29:227-39. Representative amino acid sequences of HDAC1/2 are indicated above, and a representative amino acid sequence of CoREST can be found, for example, at GenBank Accession No. AAF01498.1. See, also, Lee et al., 2005, Nature, 437:432-5.
HDAC3 is known to be a component of the N-CoR/SMRT complex, which was originally identified as a co-repressor for the thyroid hormone and retinoic acid receptors. Since an interaction between TR2/TR4 and N-CoR/SMRT was not detected in the experiments described herein, HDAC3 may bind directly to TR2/TR4 in erythroid cells without the other components of the N-CoR/SMRT complex. A representative amino acid sequence of a human HDAC3 polypeptide can be found, for example, at GenBank Accession No. NP—003874.2.
TIF1beta (see, for example, Le Douarin et al., 1996, EMBO J., 15:6701-15), also known as KAP-1 (KRAB domain-associated protein), has been proposed to act as the universal transcriptional co-repressor for the KRAB (Krüppel-associated box) domain-containing zinc finger transcription factors. In mediating transcriptional repression, TIF1beta is thought to recruit the NuRD complex to a KRAB protein. TIF1beta also interacts directly with HP1 (heterochromatin protein 1) proteins, further implicating its role in epigenetic transcriptional repression, in this case through heterochromatin formation. A representative amino acid sequence of a human TIF1beta polypeptide can be found, for example, at GenBank Accession No. CAA66150.1.
Detectable polypeptides are used routinely in the art, and simply refer to any polypeptide that can be detected, either directly or indirectly. Detectable polypeptides are sometimes referred to as reporter proteins. Without limitation, representative detectable polypeptides include luciferase (e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,871,803; and 7,939,649), fluorescent proteins (e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,892,791; 7,897,385; and 7,910,714), beta-galactosidase, beta-glucuronidase (GUS), and chloramphenyl acetyltransferase (CAT). It would be understood that any number of other proteins can be used as a “detectable polypeptide” using, for example, an antibody specific for that protein. For example, in certain instances, the gamma-globin protein can be used as the “detectable polypeptide” to evaluate the effect that a compound has on the various co-repressors identified herein.
The detectable polypeptide is operably linked to a gamma-globin promoter. The gamma-globin gene is typically transcriptionally active in a fetus, but is then silenced in the adult organisms. See, for example, Pace et al., 2006, Dev. Dyn., 235:1727-37. Representative nucleic acid sequences of a human gamma-globin promoter can be found, for example, at GenBank Accession No. FJ766333 or X52069. See, also, Slighton et al., 1980, Cell, 21:627-38.
With respect to polypeptides, the term “purified” refers to a polypeptide that has been separated or purified from cellular components that naturally accompany it. Typically, the polypeptide is considered “purified” when it is at least 70% (e.g., at least 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99%) by dry weight, free from the proteins and naturally occurring molecules with which it is naturally associated. Since a polypeptide that is chemically synthesized is, by nature, separated from the components that naturally accompany it, a synthetic polypeptide is “purified”.
Polypeptides can be purified from natural sources (e.g., cell lysates) by known methods such as DEAE ion exchange, gel filtration, and hydroxyapatite chromatography. In addition, a purified polypeptide can be obtained by chemical synthesis. The extent of purity of a polypeptide can be measured using any appropriate method, e.g., column chromatography, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, or HPLC analysis. As described in more detail below, a purified polypeptide also can be obtained by expressing a nucleic acid encoding the polypeptide.
The above-described polypeptides can be encoded by the respective nucleic acid sequences associated with the above-referenced GenBank Accession Numbers. Those of skill in the art would understand, however, that, based on the degenerate code, a number of different nucleic acids can be designed that encode the same polypeptide. The term “nucleic acid” can refer to DNA molecules and RNA molecules as well as analogs of the DNA or RNA molecule generated using nucleotide analogs. A nucleic acid as described herein can be single-stranded or double-stranded, which generally is dependent upon its intended use.
As used herein, an “isolated” nucleic acid is a nucleic acid that is separated from other nucleic acids that are usually associated with the isolated nucleic acid. Thus, an “isolated” nucleic acid includes, without limitation, a nucleic acid that is free of sequences that naturally flank one or both ends of the nucleic acid in the genome of the organism from which the isolated nucleic acid is derived (e.g., a cDNA or genomic DNA fragment produced by PCR or restriction endonuclease digestion). In addition, an isolated nucleic acid molecule can include an engineered nucleic acid such as a recombinant or a synthetic nucleic acid. A nucleic acid existing among hundreds to millions of other nucleic acid molecules within, for example, a nucleic acid library (e.g., a cDNA, or genomic library) or a portion of a gel (e.g., agarose, or polyacrylamide) containing restriction-digested genomic DNA is not to be considered an isolated nucleic acid.
Isolated nucleic acids can be obtained using techniques routine in the art. For example, isolated nucleic acids can be obtained using any method including, without limitation, recombinant nucleic acid technology, and/or the polymerase chain reaction (PCR). General PCR techniques are described, for example in PCR Primer: A Laboratory Manual, 1995, Dieffenbach & Dveksler, Eds., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press. Recombinant nucleic acid techniques include, for example, restriction enzyme digestion and ligation, which can be used to isolate a nucleic acid. Isolated nucleic acids also can be chemically synthesized, either as a single nucleic acid or as a series of oligonucleotides.
In addition to naturally-occurring sequences, the skilled artisan will further appreciate that changes can be introduced into a nucleic acid using methods routine in the art, thereby leading to changes in the amino acid sequence of the encoded polypeptide. For example, changes can be introduced into nucleic acid coding sequences leading to conservative amino acid substitutions at one or more amino acid residues. A “conservative amino acid substitution” is one in which one amino acid residue is replaced with a different amino acid residue having similar characteristics (see, for example, Dayhoff et al., 1978, in Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure, 5(3):345-352).
A nucleic acid or polypeptide sequence can be compared to another sequence and described in terms of its percent sequence identity. In calculating percent sequence identity, two sequences are aligned and the number of identical matches of nucleotides or amino acid residues between the two sequences is determined. The number of identical matches is divided by the length of the aligned region (i.e., the number of aligned nucleotides or amino acid residues) and multiplied by 100 to arrive at a percent sequence identity value. It will be appreciated that the length of the aligned region can be a portion of one or both sequences up to the full-length size of the shortest sequence. It will be appreciated that a single sequence can align differently with other sequences and hence, can have different percent sequence identity values over each aligned region. It is noted that the percent identity value is usually rounded to the nearest integer.
The alignment of two or more sequences to determine percent sequence identity is performed using the algorithm described by Altschul et al. (1997, Nucleic Acids Res., 25:3389-3402) as incorporated into BLAST (basic local alignment search tool) programs, available at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov on the World Wide Web. BLAST searches can be performed to determine percent sequence identity between a first nucleic acid and any other sequence or portion thereof aligned using the Altschul et al. algorithm. BLASTN is the program used to align and compare the identity between nucleic acid sequences, while BLASTP is the program used to align and compare the identity between amino acid sequences. When utilizing BLAST programs to calculate the percent identity between a sequence of the invention and another sequence, the default parameters of the respective programs are used.
Constructs containing such nucleic acids also are provided. Constructs, including expression vectors, are commercially available and/or can be produced by recombinant DNA technology methods routine in the art. A construct containing nucleic acid encoding one or more polypeptides also can have elements necessary for expression operably linked to such a nucleic acid, and further can include sequences such as those encoding a selectable marker (e.g., an antibiotic resistance gene), and/or those that can be used in purification of a polypeptide (e.g., 6×His tag). Elements necessary for expression include nucleic acid sequences that direct and regulate expression of coding sequences. One example of an element necessary for expression is a promoter sequence. Elements necessary for expression also can include introns, enhancer sequences, response elements, or inducible elements that modulate expression of a coding sequence. Elements necessary for expression can be of bacterial, yeast, insect, mammalian, or viral origin and vectors can contain a combination of elements from different origins. As used herein, operably linked means that a promoter and/or other regulatory element(s) are positioned in a construct relative to a coding sequence in such a way as to direct or regulate expression of the coding sequence. Many methods for introducing nucleic acids into cells are well known to those skilled in the art and include, without limitation, calcium phosphate precipitation, electroporation, heat shock, lipofection, microinjection, and viral-mediated nucleic acid transfer.
The nucleic acids described herein (e.g., in constructs) can be introduced into cells to thereby generate recombinant cells. The term “recombinant cell” refers not only to the particular cell into which the nucleic acid has been introduced but also to the progeny of such a cell. A recombinant cell can be a prokaryotic cell or a eukaryotic cell. For example, nucleic acids can be expressed in bacterial cells such as E. coli, or in insect, yeast or mammalian cells (such as Chinese hamster ovary cells (CHO) or COS cells). In addition, the cell can be an erythroid cell, or any other eukaryotic cell into which nucleic acids encoding TR2/TR4 polypeptides and nucleic acids encoding one or more of the other co-repressors identified herein can be introduced. Other suitable host cells that can be made recombinant are known to those skilled in the art.
The methods described herein for manipulating nucleic acids in order to express the desired combination of polypeptides require nothing more than standard molecular biology techniques that are well known in the art. Such routine molecular biology techniques are described, for example, in Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Sambrook et al., Cold Spring Harbor Press (2001); and in PCR Primer: A Laboratory Manual, 1995, Dieffenbach & Dveksler, Eds., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.
Compounds for Use in the Screening Methods
Any number of different compounds can be screened in the methods described herein. Representative compounds include, for example, small molecules, polypeptides, synthetic compounds, naturally-occurring compounds, antibodies, antigen-binding fragment, or antigens.
Compounds that can be screened in the methods herein can include antibodies. As used herein, the term “antibody” is used in the broadest sense and includes fully assembled antibodies, monoclonal antibodies, polyclonal antibodies, multispecific antibodies (including bispecific antibodies), antibody fragments that can bind an antigen (including, Fab′, F′(ab)2, Fv, single chain antibodies, diabodies), and recombinant peptides comprising the foregoing as long as they exhibit the desired biological activity. Multimers or aggregates of intact molecules and/or fragments, including derivatized multimers, aggregates or fragments, are contemplated. Antibodies of any isotype class or subclass, including IgG, IgM, IgD, IgA, and IgE, IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, IgA1 and IgA2, or any allotype, also are contemplated.
In addition, compounds used in the screening methods described herein can include nucleic acids (e.g., oligonucleotides) or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Nonlimiting examples include antisense oligonucleotides, triplex oligonucleotides, ribozymes/deoxyribozymes (DNAzymes), small-interfering RNAs/RNAi, short hairpin RNA, aptamers, ribozymes or decoy oligonucleotides.
For example, small molecule libraries (e.g., chemical libraries, natural product libraries) can be obtained from various commercial sources, while other types of libraries (e.g., combinatorially generated nucleic acid or peptide libraries), can be generated using known methods. Simply by way of example, large combinatorial libraries of compounds can be constructed by the encoded synthetic libraries (ESL) methods described in WO 95/12608, WO 93/06121, WO 94/08051, WO 95/35503 and WO 95/30642. Peptide libraries can also be generated by phage display methods (see, e.g., WO 91/18980). Compounds to be screened can also be obtained from governmental or private sources including, e.g., the DIVERSet E library from ChemBridge Corporation (San Diego, Calif.), the National Cancer Institute's (NCI) Natural Product Repository, Bethesda, Md., the NCI Open Synthetic Compound Collection; Bethesda, Md., or NCI's Developmental Therapeutics Program.
Using Compounds that Inhibit the Interactions and/or De-repress the Human Gamma-Globin Gene in Pharmaceutical Compositions
Compounds identified in the screening methods described herein or compounds that are already known inhibitors of DNMT1 or LSD-1 can be used to treat a beta-globin disorder in a mammal (e.g., a human). Beta-globin disorders, sometimes referred to as hemoglobinopathies, include any disorder associated with an alteration in the amount, structural integrity, or function of adult hemoglobin (i.e., beta-globin). Hemoglobinopathies include, but are not limited to, beta-thalassemia including beta0-(major) and beta+-(minor) thalassemia, and sickle cell disease including sickle cell anemia and sickle thalassemia.
As indicated herein, compounds that stimulate (or de-repress) the human gamma-globin gene can be screened from libraries, or compounds that are known to inhibit any of the co-repressors can be used. For example, a number of inhibitors of LSD-1 are known in the art, including, without limitation, tranylcypromine, derivatives of tranylcypromine (see, for example, Binda et al., 2010, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 132:6827-33), analogues of tranylcypromine (see, for example, Genelkebir et al., 2011, Bioorg. Med. Chem., [in press]), polyamine analogues, and a 2-PCPA derivative. In addition, a number of inhibitors of DNMT1 are known in the art, including, without limitation, doxorubicin, SGI-110 or SGI-1036, disulfuram, azacytidine, and decitabine.
Such compounds can be administered in an effective amount to an individual suffering from a beta-globin disorder. Typically, an effective amount is the amount that de-represses the gamma-globin promoter and results in an increase in the expression of the gamma-globin gene in a cell or population of cells without inducing any adverse effects. For example, an effective amount or a therapeutically effective amount or dose of a compound refers to the amount of compound that results in amelioration of symptoms or a prolongation of survival in a subject. Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of such compounds can be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimental animals, e.g., by determining the LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population). The dose ratio of toxic to therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index, which can be expressed as the ratio LD50/ED50. Compounds that exhibit high therapeutic indices are preferred.
In certain embodiments, a compound as described herein can be administered along with a second therapeutic agent. See, for example, Atweh et al., 2010, Hematol. Oncol. Clin. North Am., 24:1131-44. Representative second therapeutic agents include, for example, hydroxyurea, butyrate analogs, and 5-azacytidine, which have been shown to increase gamma-globin production, Gardos channel inhibitors, which inhibit dehydration of red blood cells, and/or hematopoietic growth factors such as erythropoietin and analogs thereof, mimetic peptides, mimetic antibodies, hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF) inhibitors, GM-CSF, and IL-3. The use of a compound in conjunction with a second therapeutic agent may facilitate reducing the required dosage of the second therapeutic agent to avoid pharmacokinetic or toxicity associated therewith.
Continuous formation and destruction of irreversibly sickled cells contributes significantly to the severe hemolytic anemia that occurs in patients with sickle cell disease. The anemia of sickle cell can be even more severe if erythropoiesis is suppressed. For example, folic acid and vitamin B12 are required for proper cell division; and deficiency in these nutrients leads to enlarged blood cells (megaloblastic cells), which are destroyed in the marrow, thus causing anemia due to ineffective erythropoiesis. Further, a deficiency in iron, which is necessary for functional heme production, further aggravates the anemia. Therefore, in yet another embodiment, a compound as described herein is administered with yet another agent selected from the group consisting of folic acid, vitamin B12, and an iron supplement, e.g., ferrous gluconate.
In another embodiment, a compound as described herein can be used to treat cells ex vivo to induce gamma-globin production. The cells are then transfused into an individual suffering from a beta-globin disorder and in need of treatment. In a particular embodiment, the cells are bone marrow cells. The bone marrow cells can be derived from the individual (autologous) or from a matched donor (allogenic). Following treatment of the cells with a compound as described herein, the cells can be delivered to the individual in conjunction with current blood transfusions, e.g., for treatment of sickle cell disease.
Pharmaceutical Compositions and Routes of Administration
The compounds identified in the screening methods described herein or compounds that are already known to be inhibitors of DNMT1 or LSD-1 can be formulated with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier for delivery to an individual. The particular formulation, will be dependent upon a variety of factors, including route of administration, dosage and dosage interval of a compound the sex, age, and weight of the individual being treated, the severity of the affliction, and the judgment of the individual's physician. As used herein, “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” is intended to include any and all excipients, solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and anti-fungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents, and the like, compatible with administration. The use of such media and agents for pharmaceutically acceptable carriers is well known in the art. Except insofar as any conventional media or agent is incompatible with a compound, use thereof is contemplated.
Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers for delivering compounds are well known in the art. See, for example Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences in Philadelphia, Ed., 21st Edition, 2005, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; and The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, Goodman and Gilman, Eds., 12th Ed., 2001, McGraw-Hill Co. The type of pharmaceutically acceptable carrier used in a particular formulation can depend on various factors, such as, for example, the physical and chemical properties of the compound, the route of administration, and the manufacturing procedure. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers are available in the art, and include those listed in various pharmacopoeias. See, for example, the U.S. Pharmacopeia (USP), Japanese Pharmacopoeia (JP), European Pharmacopoeia (EP), and British pharmacopeia (BP); the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER) publications (e.g., Inactive Ingredient Guide (1996)); and Ash and Ash, Eds. (2002) Handbook of Pharmaceutical Additives, Synapse Information Resources, Inc., Endicott, N.Y.
A pharmaceutical composition that includes a compound as described herein is typically formulated to be compatible with its intended route of administration. Suitable routes of administration include, for example, oral, rectal, topical, nasal, pulmonary, ocular, intestinal, and parenteral administration. Routes for parenteral administration include intravenous, intramuscular, and subcutaneous administration, as well as intraperitoneal, intra-arterial, intra-articular, intracardiac, intracisternal, intradermal, intralesional, intraocular, intrapleural, intrathecal, intrauterine, and intraventricular administration.
For intravenous injection, for example, the composition may be formulated as an aqueous solution using physiologically compatible buffers, including, for example, phosphate, histidine, or citrate for adjustment of the formulation pH, and a tonicity agent, such as, for example, sodium chloride or dextrose. For transmucosal or nasal administration, semisolid, liquid formulations, or patches may be preferred, optionally containing penetration enhancers, which are known in the art. For oral administration, a compound can be formulated in liquid or solid dosage forms, and also formulation as an instant release or controlled/sustained release formulations. Suitable dosage forms for oral ingestion by an individual include tablets, pills, hard and soft shell capsules, liquids, gels, syrups, slurries, suspensions, and emulsions. The compounds may also be formulated in rectal compositions, such as suppositories or retention enemas, e.g., containing conventional suppository bases such as cocoa butter or other glycerides.
Solid oral dosage forms can be obtained using excipients, which can include fillers, disintegrants, binders (dry and wet), dissolution retardants, lubricants, glidants, anti-adherants, cationic exchange resins, wetting agents, antioxidants, preservatives, coloring, and flavoring agents. These excipients can be of synthetic or natural source. Examples of such excipients include cellulose derivatives, citric acid, dicalcium phosphate, gelatine, magnesium carbonate, magnesium/sodium lauryl sulfate, mannitol, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl pyrrolidone, silicates, silicium dioxide, sodium benzoate, sorbitol, starches, stearic acid or a salt thereof, sugars (e.g., dextrose, sucrose, lactose), talc, tragacanth mucilage, vegetable oils (hydrogenated), and waxes. Ethanol and water may serve as granulation aides. In certain instances, coating of tablets with, for example, a taste-masking film, a stomach acid resistant film, or a release-retarding film is desirable. When a capsule is preferred over a tablet, the drug powder, suspension, or solution thereof can be delivered in a compatible hard or soft shell capsule.
Compounds described herein can be administered topically, such as through a skin patch, a semi-solid, or a liquid formulation, for example a gel, a (micro-) emulsion, an ointment, a solution, a (nano/micro)-suspension, or a foam. The penetration of the drug into the skin and underlying tissues can be regulated, for example, using penetration enhancers; the appropriate choice and combination of lipophilic, hydrophilic, and amphiphilic excipients, including water, organic solvents, waxes, oils, synthetic and natural polymers, surfactants, emulsifiers; by pH adjustment; and the use of complexing agents. For administration by inhalation (e.g., via the mouth or nose), compounds can be delivered in the form of a solution, suspension, emulsion, or semisolid aerosol from pressurized packs, or a nebuliser, usually with the use of a propellant, e.g., halogenated carbons.
Compounds described herein also can be formulated for parenteral administration (e.g., by injection). Such formulations are usually sterile and, can be provided in unit dosage forms, e.g., in ampoules, syringes, injection pens, or in multi-dose containers, the latter usually containing a preservative. The formulations may take such forms as suspensions, solutions, or emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles, and may contain other agents, such as buffers, tonicity agents, viscosity enhancing agents, surfactants, suspending and dispersing agents, antioxidants, biocompatible polymers, chelating agents, and preservatives. Depending on the injection site, the vehicle may contain water, a synthetic or vegetable oil, and/or organic co-solvents. In certain instances, such as with a lyophilized product or a concentrate, the parenteral formulation would be reconstituted or diluted prior to administration. Polymers such as poly(lactic acid), poly(glycolic acid), or copolymers thereof, can serve as controlled or sustained release matrices, in addition to others well known in the art. Other delivery systems may be provided in the form of implants or pumps.
In accordance with the present invention, there may be employed conventional molecular biology, microbiology, biochemical, and recombinant DNA techniques within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature. The invention will be further described in the following examples, which do not limit the scope of the methods and compositions of matter described in the claims.
Part A
Rabbit polyclonal antibodies against TR2 and TR4 generated and purified as described previously (Tanabe et al., 2007, EMBO J., 26:2295-306) was further purified with Melon Gel IgG Spin Purification Kit (Thermo Scientific). For co-immunoprecipitaion and Western blotting, antibodies against DNMT1 (sc-20701), MTA1 (sc-10813), MTA2 (sc-9447), HDAC2 (sc-7899), Mi213 (sc-8774), RbAp46/48 (sc-8272), MBD2 (sc-12444), MBD3 (sc-9402), CoREST (sc-23448), LSD1 (sc-67272), and TIF113 (sc-33186) were obtained from Santa Cruz Biotechnology, and antibodies against HDAC1 (ab7028), p66 (ab76924), HDAC3 (ab7030), and LSD1 (ab17721) were obtained from Abcam, and an antibody against TIF1β (K0075-04) was obtained from US Biological. For ChIP assays, the same Abcam antibodies against HDAC1, HDAC3, and LSD1 were used, as well as antibodies against CoREST (ab24166), TIF1β (ab10483), DNMT1 (ab16632), and Mi2β (ab72418) as well as normal rabbit IgG (ab46540) from Abcam, and an MTA1 (sc-10813) antibody from Santa Cruz Biotechnology.
ChIP assays were performed essentially as described (Frietze et al., 2010, PLoS One, 5:e15082; O'Geen et al., 2010, BMC Genomics, 11:689) with minor modifications. MEL cells were harvested before or after differentiation induction (with 2% DMSO for 5 days). Differentiation was confirmed by benzidine staining of the cells (>90%). 108 cells were washed twice with PBS, and then incubated with 1% formaldehyde (Polysciences) in 50 ml PBS at room temperature for 10 min with gentle shaking, followed by addition of 0.125 M glycine and continued incubation for 5 min. For ChIP assay with TR2 or TR4 antibody, cells were treated with 2 mM ethylene glycolbis(succinimidyl succinate) (EGS) (Pierce) in 50 ml PBS at room temperature for 30 min, prior to the addition of formaldehyde (Polysciences) as described previously (Zeng et al., 2006, Biotechniques, 41:694,696,698). All procedures were carried out at 0-4° C. unless specifically stated otherwise. After lysing the cells with a Dounce homogenizer in 10 ml of cell lysis buffer (5 mM PIPES, pH8.0, 85 mM KCl, 1% Igepal) with protease inhibitors (10 μg/ml aprotinin, 10 μg/ml leupeptin, and 1 mM PMSF), nuclei were collected by centrifugation (at 13,000×g for 5 min) and then lysed by incubation in 2 ml of ChIP lysis buffer (50 mM Tris, pH8.0, 10 mM EDTA, 1% SDS) containing the protease inhibitors for 30 min. After shearing DNA by sonication, the lysate was clarified by centrifugation (at 10,000×g for 10 min) and then divided into 20 μl aliquots for immunoprecipitation, to which 500 μl of IP dilution buffer (50 mM Tris, pH 7.4, 150 mM NaCl, 1% Igepal, 0.25% deoxycholic acid, 1 mM EDTA, and protease inhibitors) was added. After addition of 1-10 μg of antibody to the 500 μl of lysate (equivalent to 106 cells) and incubation for 12 hr, 15 μl of protein A agarose beads (Millipore) were added to the lysate and mixed by rotation for 2 hr. The beads were washed with 1 ml IP dilution buffer without protease inhibitors with rotation 3 times for 5 min, and then once with PBS. Protein-DNA cross-linked material was then eluted by vortexing in 150 μl of elution buffer (50 mM NaHCO3, 1% SDS) for 30 min at room temperature. After removing the beads by centrifugation (190×g for 5 min at room temperature), 5 M NaCl was added to a final concentration of 0.54 M.
After heating the samples to 67° C. for 2 hr to reverse the cross-linking, the DNA was purified using a QIAquick PCR Purification Kit (Qiagen), and then subjected to real-time quantitative PCR assay with SYBR Green Master Mix (Applied Biosystems) on an ABI Prism 7000 (Applied Biosystems). PCR assays were performed in triplicates from at least two independent immunoprecipitations. The abundance of specifically immunoprecipitated DNA relative to input was determined from the threshold cycle numbers of the two samples using experimentally determined amplification efficiencies for primer sets. Following PCR primers were used to quantify murine genomic sequences: embryonic epsilonY-globin promoter, 5′-GAA AGA ATA CCT CCA TAT CTA ATG TGC AT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:1) and 5′-CTG CAT TAT TCT TTG AAG CTA TTG GT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:2); embryonic betaH1-globin promoter, 5′-GGA CCC CAC CCC TGT CTT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:3) and 5′-TTA CCC CTC CCC AGG ACT CT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:4); adult betamajor-globin promoter, 5′-GAA GCC TGA TTC CGT AGA GC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:5) and 5′-CAA CTG ATC CTA CCT CAC CTT ATA TGC-3′ (SEQ ID NO:6); intergenic region between betaH1- and betamajor-globin genes, 5′-CGG GAT GGG CAT TAA AGG TA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:7) and 5′-AAC AAC CTG TGT CAG AAG CAG ATG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:8); SCAP gene promoter; 5′-CGC GGT CCG GTG TTT G-3′ (SEQ ID NO:9) and 5′-GGA AAG GTA GGA GTT GAG AGG TGA A-3′ (SEQ ID NO:10).
The 23-amino acid biotinylation tag sequence (de Boer et al., 2003, PNAS USA, 100:7480-5) was cloned into the NcoI site overlapping the translation initiation codon of the N-terminally FLAG-tagged TR2 and TR4 cDNAs cloned in pBluescript II SK+ (Tanabe et al., 2002, EMBO J., 21:3434-42). After introducing an EagI linker into the XhoI site of the vector multiple cloning site at the C-terminus of the biotin-FLAG-TR2 or biotin-FLAG-TR4 construct, the tagged cDNAs were released from the vector by EagI digestion and cloned into a unique NotI site in the erythroid specific expression vector, pEV3neo (Needham et al., 1992, Nuc. Acids Res., 20:997-1003).
Mouse erythroleukemia (MEL) cells were cultured and induced to differentiate, as previously described (Antoniou, 1991, In Methods in Molecular Biology: Gene Transfer and Expression Protocols; Ed., Murray, 7:421-34, Humana, Clifton, N.J.; Rodriquez et al., 2005, EMBO J., 24:2354-66). Tagged TR2 and TR4 in the pEV3neo expression vector were transfected into MEL cells stably transformed with the BirA biotin ligase, as previously described (de Boer et al., 2003, PNAS USA, 10:7480-5). Clones were obtained by G418 and puromycin selection (the latter selects for BirA-expressing cells) and screened by immunoblotting for efficient expression and biotinylation of tagged TR2 and TR4.
Nuclear extracts were prepared essentially as previously described (de Boer et al., 2003, PNAS USA, 10:7480-5; Rodriguez et al., 2006, Methods Mol. Biol., 338:305-23). Size fractionation of MEL nuclear extracts using an analytical Superose 6 column was carried out as previously described (Rodriguez et al., 2005, EMBO J., 24:2354-66; Rodriguez et al., 2006, Methods Mol. Biol., 338:305-23). Preparative size fractionation by gel filtration was done by injecting 40 mg of nuclear extract protein (in 5 ml) into a preparative grade Superose 6 XK50/600 column connected to an AKTA FPLC system (GE Healthcare Life Sciences) equilibrated in running buffer (20 mM HEPES pH 7.9, 0.5 mM EGTA, 1 mM MgCl2, 200 mM KCl, 10% glycerol). Gel filtration was carried out at 4° C., and 10 ml fractions were collected and concentrated by TCA precipitation for analysis by immunoblotting, or pooled and bound directly to streptavidin beads, as described below. A detailed protocol for preparative Superose 6 gel filtration has already been described (Rodriguez et al., 2006, Methods Mol. Biol., 338:305-23).
Direct binding of nuclear extracts to streptavidin beads was carried out as described (de Boer et al., 2003, PNAS USA, 100:7480-5; Rodriguez et al., 2006, Methods Mol. Biol., 338:305-23). Binding of fractions following preparative gel filtration was done by pooling fraction numbers 20 through 38 and adjusting KCl and NP-40 concentrations to 150 mM and 0.3%, respectively. Diluted, pooled fractions were then divided into 50 ml Falcon tubes, to which Dynabeads M-280 streptavidin (Invitrogen), pre-blocked as described previously (de Boer et al., 2003, PNAS USA, 100:7480-5), was added for overnight incubation at 4° C. on a rotating wheel. Approximately 10 μl of resuspended beads were used per original 10 ml fraction. Following overnight incubation, the beads were pooled and washed as described previously (de Boer et al., 2003, PNAS USA, 100:7480-5). Bound proteins were eluted with 1× Laemmli sample buffer (50 μl of sample buffer per 20 μl of beads), and then resolved by SDS-PAGE. Alternatively, bound proteins were trypsinized directly on the beads and processed for mass spectrometry as described below.
Proteins eluted from streptavidin beads were resolved by SDS-PAGE and gel lanes were cut into slices using an automatic gel slicer and subjected to in-gel trypsinization, essentially as described (Shevchenko et al., 1996, Anal. Chem., 68:850-8). Alternatively, bound proteins were trypsinized on the beads after resuspending in 50 mM ammonium bicarbonate and adding trypsin (sequencing grade, Promega) to approximately 60 ng/mg of total protein, followed by overnight incubation at 37° C. (Rybak et al., 2005, Nat. Methods, 2:291-8). The supernatant containing the trypsinized peptides was then recovered by magnetically removing the beads. Peptides released by in-gel or on-bead trypsinization were analyzed by nano LC-MS/MS performed on either a CapLC system (Waters, Manchester, UK) coupled to a Q-ToF Ultima mass spectrometer (Waters, Manchester, UK), operating in positive mode and equipped with a Z-spray source, or a 1100 series capillary LC system (Agilent Technologies) coupled to an LTQ-Orbitrap or LTQ-FT-MS mass spectrometer (both Thermo) operating in positive mode and equipped with a nanospray source. Peptides were trapped and separated on a Jupiter™ C18 reversed phase column (Phenomenex) using a linear gradient from 0 to 80% B (A=0.1 M acetic acid; B=80% (v/v) acetonitrile, 0.1 M acetic acid) using a splitter. The column eluate was directly sprayed into the ESI source of the mass spectrometer. Mass spectra were acquired in continuum mode; fragmentation of the peptides was performed in data-dependent mode.
Peak lists were automatically created from raw data files using the ProteinLynx Global Server software (version 2.0; Waters, Manchester, UK) for Q-ToF spectra and the Mascot Distiller software (version 2.0; MatrixScience, London, UK) for LTQ-Orbitrap and LTQ-FT-MS spectra. The Mascot search algorithm (version 2.0, MatrixScience, London, UK) was used for searching the NCBI nr database (release NCBI nr 20060106; taxonomy M. musculus). The Mascot score cut-off value for a positive hit was set to 65. Individual peptide MS/MS spectra with Mowse scores below 40 were checked manually and either interpreted as valid identifications or discarded. Identified proteins listed as NCBI nr database entries were screened to identify proteins that were also identified in mass spectrometry experiments from control BirA-expressing cells (de Boer et al., 2003, PNAS USA, 100:7480-5). These were removed as background binding proteins. The remaining proteins were classified according to Gene Ontology criteria as listed for each protein in the Mouse Genome Informatics database (“informatics.jax.org/” on the World Wide Web) and were then grouped according to a highly representative identifier based on Biological Process or Molecular Function.
Nuclear extracts were prepared as described previously (72) from MEL cells expressing biotin-tagged TR2 and TR4. Pre-blocked Dynabeads M-270 streptavidin (Invitrogen) was incubated with the nuclear extracts containing biotin-tagged TR2 and TR4 proteins for 1 hr at 4° C. with rotation according to the manufacturer's instructions. 150 μg of nuclear extract protein was used for each assay. After washing the beads with buffer (10 mM HEPES-KOH, pH 9.0, 250 mM KCl, 1.5 mM MgCl2, 0.25 mM EDTA, 20% glycerol, 0.3% NP-40, 1 mM PMSF) three times, bound proteins were eluted from the beads by boiling in 1× Laemmli sample buffer, and then subjected to SDS-PAGE followed by immunoblotting.
Antibodies were coupled to Dynabeads protein G (Invitrogen) by incubating for 2 hr at 4° C. with rotation according to the manufacturer's instructions. The beads were then incubated with nuclear extracts (150 μg protein) prepared from untransfected MEL cells for 2 hr at 4° C. After washing the beads with ice-cold phosphate buffered saline (PBS) three times, immunoprecipitated proteins were eluted by boiling in 1× Laemmli sample buffer and then subjected to immunoblotting.
After SDS-PAGE, proteins were transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane (Li-Cor) and probed with specific primary antibodies (described above) and fluorescence-conjugated secondary antibodies (Li-Cor). Proteins were visualized on the Odyssey Infrared Imaging System (Li-Cor).
Previous biochemical and genetic studies suggested that a TR2/TR4 heterodimer directly repressed the embryonic and fetal beta-type globin genes in adult erythroid cells through direct repeat (DR) elements in their promoters. In order to provide further evidence for this contention, chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays were performed to demonstrate in vivo TR2/TR4 binding to the embryonic beta-type globin promoters in adult erythroid cells. To do so, the murine erythroleukemia (MEL) cell line was used, the only established cell line with a gene expression profile typical of adult erythroid cells, where the embryonic epsilonY and betaH1 genes, orthologues of human embryonic epsilon- and fetal gamma-globin genes, respectively (which both possess DR sequences in their promoters), are silenced.
Cross-linked chromatin from MEL cells before and after differentiation induction with DMSO was prepared and analyzed for TR2 and TR4 binding to the promoters of the embryonic and adult genes. In undifferentiated MEL cells, binding of both TR2 and TR4 to both epsilonY- and betaH1-promoters was clearly and reproducibly detected in multiple experiments, whereas no binding was detectable to the promoter of the adult betamajor-globin gene, or to an intergenic region between the betaH1 and betamajor genes (
In order to investigate details of the molecular mechanisms underlying silencing by TR2/TR4 of the embryonic and fetal beta-type globin genes in adult erythroid cells, it was planned to identify molecules that physically interact with TR2/TR4 and are thereby recruited to those genes to elicit stage-specific silencing. Both biotin-FLAG-tagged TR2 and TR4 were transfected into MEL cells expressing the BirA biotin ligase to establish stably transformed cell lines (
Using size exclusion chromatography (with an analytical Superose 6 gel filtration column), the presence of TR2/TR4 was assessed in high molecular weight protein complexes in MEL nuclear extracts. The fractionation profiles of tagged TR2/TR4 proteins, as detected by streptavidin-HRP, were similar to those for the endogenous proteins in nuclear extracts from untransfected MEL cells (
On the basis of these initial observations and in order to enrich for the TR2/TR4 high molecular weight complexes, a preparative Superose 6 gel filtration column was employed with a matrix bed volume of 550 ml, thus allowing the fractionation of more than 40 mg of protein prepared from MEL nuclear extracts. Fractions with a molecular mass greater than that of the TR2/TR4 heterodimer were pooled and then bound to streptavidin beads (
Peptides were identified by Q-TOF or LTQ-FT mass spectrometry in three separate experiments. After subtracting background protein binding, the remaining peptides were manually curated and the proteins were then grouped according to broadly representative Gene Ontology (GO) criteria. The TR2/TR4 heterodimer-interacting proteins identified by mass spectrometric analysis is shown in Table 1. Since the total number of peptides identified per protein provides some indication of its relative abundance, the number of peptides corresponding to each GO class was also graphically depicted as a percentage of the total number of peptides (e.g.
TABLE 1
Experiment #1
Experiment #2
Experiment #3
Peptides
Peptides
Peptides
Protein
%
%
%
Identity
Totala
Coverageb
Total
Coverage
Total
Coverage
Orphan
Nuclear
Receptors
TR4
53
32.0%
101
36.7%
26
27.7%
TR2
28
9.7%
22
22.5%
9
17.3%
DNMT1
35
13.5%
14
10.1%
15
10.4%
NuRD
complex
Mi2β
1
1.1%
4
5.3%
6
4.4%
HDAC1
2
4.4%
—
—
3
8.9%
HDAC2
—
—
—
—
2
4.9%
RbAp48
2
2.0%
3
6.3%
1
1.9%
RbAp46
2
2.0%
3
6.8%
—
—
MTA1
7
8.7%
1
1.7%
1
1.8%
MTA2
2
2.8%
—
—
—
—
Co-
repressors
TIF1β
16
12.7%
6
9.0%
1
1.8%
LSD1
—
—
—
—
1
3.4%
NonO
10
7.8%
9
17.8%
7
11.0%
SFPQ
12
15.3%
8
15.9%
10
18.2%
PSPC1
1
3.3%
3
7.8%
2
4.6%
Sin3A
—
—
—
—
1
1.1%
Co-
activators
HCF1
4
2.5%
2
1.4%
1
0.8%
CAPER
—
—
2
4.9%
1
2.6%
BRG1
2
1.4%
—
—
1
0.8%
Total
388
371
229
aNumbers of total peptide sequences for each protein identified in three independent mass spectrometry experiments are listed.
b% Coverage refers to percentage of the full-length sequence of each protein identified in these analyses.
Other classes of identified proteins included those involved in cellular functions related to cell cycle, cell division, DNA replication and recombination (broadly classified as Cell Cycle related), heat shock proteins, chaperonins, proteins involved in intracellular protein transport and in the ubiquitin cycle (
The association of TR2/TR4 with the NuRD repressor complex subunits (HDAC1/2, MTA1/2, Mi2beta, and RbAp46/48) as initially indicated by mass spectrometry was confirmed by immunoblotting of proteins recovered using streptavidin beads from nuclear extracts of MEL cells expressing biotin-tagged TR2 and TR4 (
The interactions between TR2/TR4 and DNMT1, LSD1 and TIF1beta as originally identified in the mass spectrometry experiments were also verified by streptavidin pull-down and immunoblotting (
In order to verify that the protein-protein interactions detected by mass spectrometry and immunoblotting following streptavidin-bead purification of tagged TR2/TR4 were genuine and to specifically rule out potentially artifactual interactions that might result from the (aberrantly abundant) expression of tagged TR2/TR4, co-immunoprecipitation assays were performed using nuclear extracts prepared from untransfected MEL cells. TR2, TR4, DNMT1, HDAC3, TIF1beta, LSD1 and NuRD subunits (MTA1, HDAC1, Mi2beta, and RbAp46/48) (
DNMT1 and HDAC3 were also co-precipitated in immune complexes formed with either the anti-TR2 or TR4 antibodies (
In addition to the interactions of TR2 and TR4 with potential accessory co-factors, novel as well as known interactions between these co-regulatory proteins were further investigated by co-immunoprecipitation assays. When several NuRD components (MTA1, HDAC1, Mi2beta, or RbAp46/48) were immunoprecipitated with unique antibodies, most of the other NuRD components could clearly be detected in the immune complexes (
Among the immune complexes precipitated with the anti-DNMT1 antibody, most of the NuRD subunits (MTA1/2, HDAC1/2, Mi2beta, and RbAp46/48) were co-precipitated and detected by immunoblotting (
In immune complexes precipitated with the anti-LSD1 antibody, most of the NuRD subunits (specifically MTA2, HDAC1/2, and Mi2beta) were detectable by immunoblotting (
The results of the co-immunoprecipitation analyses are summarized in
In order to assess how different TR2/TR4-interacting proteins might be differentially partitioned into distinct protein complexes, the fractionation profiles of the proteins was determined by gel filtration on a Superose 6 column (
To gain further insight into functional significance of the TR2/TR4-associated co-repressors in beta-type globin gene regulation, their localization based on their own promoters was investigated in adult erythroid (MEL) cells by ChIP assay. MEL cells were grown under conditions that would lead to either continued proliferation (
Interestingly, upon terminal differentiation, almost all of these co-repressors dissociate specifically from the adult betamajor-globin promoter (
Previously, it was shown in undifferentiated murine adult erythroid cells that active histone marks [histone H3 and H4 acetylation, and H3 lysine 4 (H3K4) methylation] are only modestly enriched even on the adult beta-globin promoter, and, after differentiation, these active marks will become highly enriched specifically on the adult, but not on the embryonic, beta-type globin promoters. It was also reported that, in human adult hematopoietic progenitor cells, the promoter DNA of both the fetal gamma- and adult beta-globin genes are highly methylated, and, during differentiation, the adult beta-globin promoter DNA specifically undergoes extensive demethylation, another hallmark of gene activation, but the fetal gamma-globin promoter does not. TR2/TR4-interacting co-repressors include enzymes that can remove or cancel all of these epigenetic activation marks, namely HDAC1/2/3, methyl-H3K4 demethylase LSD1, and DNMT1. The differentiation-dependent specific dissociation of these enzymes from the adult beta-globin promoter shown here may constitute the key underlying mechanism for generation of the active chromatin structures exclusively on the adult beta-globin genes in adult erythroid cells, causing the high-level transcription of the adult genes as well as the silencing of embryonic or fetal beta-type globin genes.
Part B
Cryopreserved vials of purified human CD34+ cells, which were isolated from peripheral blood of healthy donors after mobilization with granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, were purchased from the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center. The cells were grown and differentiated ex vivo into the erythroid lineage in 14 days by a two-phase culture method reported previously (Cui et al., 2011, Mol. Cell. Biol., 31:3298-3311; Giarratana et al., 2005, Nat. Biotechnol., 23:69-74). Cell number and viability were determined with a hemocytometer by trypan blue staining Tranylcypromine (Tocris Bioscience) at 50 mM in water was added to the culture medium on day 4 through day 14. Cell morphology was examined by staining cytospins with a Wright-Giemsa stain (Sigma-Aldrich). Hemoglobin synthesis was examined by acid benzidine staining as previously described (Orkin et al., 1975, PNAS USA, 72:98-102).
For cell surface marker analysis, cells were stained with phycoerythrin (PE)-Cy7-conjugated anti-CD34 (eBioscience), PE-conjugated anti-CD71 (eBioscience), and PE-Cy5-conjugated antiglycophorin A (BD Biosciences) antibodies. For cytoplasmic HbF analysis, cells were fixed in 0.05% glutaraldehyde for 10 min, permeabilized in 0.1% Triton X-100 for 5 min, and then stained with allophycocyanin-conjugated anti-HbF antibody (Invitrogen). Stained cells were analyzed with the FACSCanto II (BD Biosciences).
Cells were lysed in a Laemmli sample buffer and subjected to SDS-PAGE. Proteins were then transferred to a nitrocellulose membrane (Li-Cor) and probed with an antibody against LSD1 (Abcam, ab17721), histone H3 (Abcam, ab1791), or dimethyl H3K4 (Abcam, ab19946), and fluorescence-conjugated secondary antibodies (Li-Cor). Proteins were visualized and quantified with the Odyssey Infrared Imaging System (Li-Cor). For quantification results, averages of three or four biological replicates are presented.
ChIP assay was performed essentially as described previously (Cui et al., supra). For LSD1 analysis, ethylene glycol bis(succinimidyl succinate) was used as an additional cross-linker to formaldehyde. The anti-LSD1 antibody or a mouse monoclonal anti-dimethyl H3K4 antibody (Millipore, 05-1338) was used for immunoprecipitation. Precipitated DNA was quantified by real-time quantitative PCR assay with primers for human epsilon-, gamma-, and beta-globin promoter sequences (Cui et al., supra), as well as primes for an intergenic region between epsilon- and Ggamma-globin genes as a negative control (5′-TCC CAC TCT GTG GGT TGT CTG TTT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:11) and 5′-CCC TTC TAC ACA TTG GCT TAG GAA AGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:12)). Averages of two to four independent immunoprecipitations are presented.
Cells were lysed and analyzed for hemoglobin composition by the B10-Rad Variant II Hemoglobin Testing System equipped with an ion-exchange HPLC column (Hercules). Averages of three to five biological replicates are presented.
Expression of the genes for human gamma- and beta-globins, LSD1, mouse alpha-globin, and 18S rRNA was determined by RT-qPCR assay as described previously (Cui et al., supra). The abundance of each transcript was calculated based on the threshold cycle value and the amplification efficiency, experimentally determined for each primer pair, and then normalized to the abundance of 18S rRNA transcript as an internal control. All the primer pairs except for 18S rRNA were designed to span introns. Primer sequences are following: human gamma-globin, 5′-GAT GCC ATA AAG CAC CTG GAT G-3′ (SEQ ID NO:13) and 5′-TTG CAG AAT AAA GCC TAT CCT TGA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:14); human beta-globin, 5′-AAC TGT GTT CAC TAG CAA CCT CAA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:15) and 5′-GAG TGG ACA GAT CCC CAA AGG A-3′ (SEQ ID NO:16); LSD1,5′-TGG CCA TTC TCA AAG GGA TT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:17) and 5′-CAG CAC GCC AAC GAG ACA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:18); mouse alpha-globin, 5′-CCC GGT GCC TTG TCT GCT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:19) and 5′-GTG AAA TCG GCA GGG TGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:20); and 18S rRNA, 5′-ACC GCA GCT AGG AAT AAT GGA-3′ (SEQ ID NO:21) and 5′-GCC TCA GTT CCG AAA ACC A-3′ (SEQ ID NO:22).
A pLKO.1-puro lentiviral vector to express the LSD1 shRNA and a puromycin resistance gene was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (TRCN0000046070), and the control empty vector was generated by removing a region (between EcoRI and NdeI sites) containing the hairpin sequence. Lentiviral particles were generated by transfecting the vectors into a packaging cell line. Cells were exposed to the viruses on day 4 of the culture for 24 hours, and then to 1 μg/ml puromycin on day 6 through day 14 for selection of infected cells.
Tranylcypromine, dissolved in saline, was administrated to transgenic mice harboring a yeast artificial chromosome containing a whole human β-type globin locus (Tanimoto et al., 2000, Genes Dev., 14:2778-94; Tanabe et al., 2007, EMBO J., 26:2295-2306) by subcutaneous injection at a dose of 3 or 10 mg/kg body weight per day, 5 days a week. Control mice were injected with saline only. After 4 weeks of injections, bone marrow cells were harvested for RTqPCR analysis for expression of the genes for human gamma- and beta-globins, and mouse alpha-globin as an internal control. Three or four mice were used for each experimental condition.
Student's t-test was used for all the statistical analyses, where asterisks indicate significant difference (*, P<0.05; **, P<0.01). Error bars represent SEM (standard error of the mean).
To gain insight into the possible role of LSD1 in human beta-type globin gene regulation, the expression of LSD1 and its possible association with the beta-type globin promoters was examined in primary human erythroid cells that had been differentiated ex vivo from purified CD34+ hematopoietic progenitors (Giarratana et al., supra). Synchronized differentiation toward the erythroid lineage can be achieved by adding multiple cytokines to the cultures, and erythroid differentiation was confirmed by morphological and detailed biochemical analysis. Most of the cells appeared to be proerythroblasts by day 8 of differentiation, and, by day 11, approximately 30% of the cells had the appearance of polychromatic erythroblasts (
Tranylcypromine (TC) is a monoamine oxidase inhibitor that has been used clinically as an antidepressant since 1960, and was shown to be a potent inhibitor of LSD1 with a half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of less than 2 μM (Lee et al., 2006, Chem. Biol., 13:563-567). In order to investigate what role, if any, LSD1 might play in beta-type globin gene regulation, the effects of TC on primary human erythroid cells was examined. Cells in the ex vivo differentiation culture were exposed to TC at concentrations of 0.5, 1.5 or 5 μM on day 4 through day 14. TC administration at 0.5 or 1.5 μM did not affect proliferation or viability of the cells, but 5 μM of TC reduced cell proliferation without affecting viability (
To address the mechanism by which TC elicited these quite dramatic HbF inductive effects, the effect of TC administration on histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4) dimethylation was next examined in the differentiating erythroid cells to determine whether or not LSD1 inhibition actually accounts for the fetal γ-globin induction by TC. Initially, to quantify global H3K4 dimethylation, total cell extracts prepared on day 8, 11, and 14 of the ex vivo differentiation culture in the absence of TC treatment were subjected to Western blotting with an antibody recognizing either total histone H3 or dimethyl H3K4 to determine its relative abundance during erythroid differentiation. The data showed a rapid global increase of dimethyl H3K4 during terminal differentiation (
In order to further define the role of LSD1 in fetal gamma-globin silencing as well as to address the mechanism of the fetal gamma-globin induction using an alternative strategy, the effect of lentivirus-mediated knockdown of LSD1 on fetal gamma-globin synthesis was examined. Primary human CD34+ cells were infected 4 days after erythroid differentiation induction with a lentivirus expressing a short-hairpin RNA (shRNA) containing a human 21-nucleotide LSD1 mRNA sequence, and then treated with puromycin to select for infected cells. The abundance of LSD1 mRNA in the cells infected with the shRNA virus was reduced to 45% and 23% on days 11 and 14, respectively, as compared to cells infected with a control virus (
Finally, the effects of TC on gamma-globin gene expression were tested in transgenic mice harboring a yeast artificial chromosome containing the whole human beta-type globin locus (Tanimoto et al., supra; Tanabe et al., supra) by administering two different doses of TC (3 or 10 mg/kg body weight per day) by subcutaneous injection, 5 days a week for 4 weeks. Expression of the human gamma-globin gene in bone marrow cells was induced in a dose dependent manner by TC by about 3-fold as compared to control mice (
This study demonstrates that LSD1 plays a critical role in adult-stage fetal gamma-globin silencing and thus can be a novel therapeutic target for fetal gamma-globin induction, and that a currently prescribed (for other use) pharmacological inhibitor, TC, can actually enhance gamma-globin gene expression in primary human erythroid cells as well as in an in vivo mouse model. These findings qualify LSD1 as an extraordinary and novel therapeutic target for beta-globin disorders in that its potent inhibitor, TC, has been widely used for five decades as a human clinical medicine with manageable side effects. TC exerts an antidepressant effect by inhibiting monoamine oxidases and thereby elevating catecholamine and serotonin levels, and does not appear to have cytotoxic or mutagenic effects, in contrast to current gamma-globin inducing medications. Therefore, TC may serve as a direct or lead compound for developing a safer gamma-globin inducing agent with a novel, well characterized mechanism of action as its basis, which may complement or even supersede medications currently prescribed for the treatment of beta-globin disorders.
It is to be understood that, while the methods and compositions of matter have been described herein in conjunction with a number of different aspects, the foregoing description of the various aspects is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the methods and compositions of matter. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of the following claims.
Disclosed are methods and compositions that can be used for, can be used in conjunction with, can be used in preparation for, or are products of the disclosed methods and compositions. These and other materials are disclosed herein, and it is understood that combinations, subsets, interactions, groups, etc. of these methods and compositions are disclosed. That is, while specific reference to each various individual and collective combinations and permutations of these compositions and methods may not be explicitly disclosed, each is specifically contemplated and described herein. For example, if a particular composition of matter or a particular method is disclosed and discussed and a number of compositions or methods are discussed, each and every combination and permutation of the compositions and the methods are specifically contemplated unless specifically indicated to the contrary. Likewise, any subset or combination of these is also specifically contemplated and disclosed.
Tanabe, Osamu, Engel, James Douglas, Shi, Lihong
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